shibata seiko

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the dose-response relationship between time spent in gait training and gait independence in individuals with non-ambulatory subacute hemiparetic stroke in a rehabilitation ward. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: A rehabilitation ward in Japan. PARTICIPANTS: Non-ambulatory individuals with subacute hemiparetic stroke who were admitted and discharged from the ward between January 2018 and December 2021. INTERVENTIONS: Gait training using orthoses, canes, robotic technology, or manual assistance by the therapist as needed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Functional Independence Measure walk (FIM-walk) score. RESULTS: In total, 326 individuals (mean age [standard deviation (SD)], 70.4 years [14.7]; men, 205) were included in the study. The cumulative rates of achieving gait independence (FIM-walk score ≥ 6), estimated by the Kaplan-Meier method with total gait training time during hospitalization as the time scale, were 50.6% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 45.3-56.2), 61.7% (95% CI: 56.4-66.9), 65.0% (95% CI: 59.9-70.2), and 65.9% (95% CI: 60.5-70.8), at 2,000, 4,000, 6,000, and 8,000 min, respectively. When participants were categorized according to the severity of lower limb motor impairment assessed by the Stroke Impairment Assessment Set motor function in lower extremity total score at admission, the cumulative rates of gait independence were significantly different among the four groups, with complete paralysis being the lowest, followed by severe, moderate, and mild paralysis (p<0.001). Stratifying by gait training time per day, the higher the gait training time per day, the higher the cumulative rate of achieving gait independence in complete and severe cases, and the lower rate in mild cases (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: A dose-response relationship with a plateau relationship was found between gait training time and achieving gait independence for non-ambulatory individuals with subacute hemiparetic stroke. The relationships differ by the degree of severity of lower limb motor impairment and by training intensity.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the prevalence of aspiration and its association with GI involvement and clinical features in systemic sclerosis (SSc). METHODS: Fifty patients with SSc who underwent the videofluoroscopic (VF) swallowing study were included. Aspiration was identified by the presence of aspiration and/or penetration defined by the Penetration-Aspiration Scale. The radiological findings including the residue in the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus, which reflect oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal involvement, were also evaluated. RESULTS: Twenty-three patients (46%) had aspiration and/or penetration. Patients with aspiration and/or laryngeal penetration had more pharyngeal vallecular residue (None 22%, Trace 44%, Mild 56%; p = 0.072) and esophageal residue (None 0%, Mild 20%, Moderate 40%, Severe 61%; p = 0.010). Esophageal, pharyngeal, and lower GI involvement were found in 98%, 83%, and 54%, respectively. Notably, the group with esophageal and pharyngeal plus lower GI involvement had a higher frequency of aspiration and/or penetration (79% vs 28%; p = 0.003), higher FSSG scores (18.4 ± 11.8 vs 5.4 ± 5.7; p = 0.002), and higher UCLA GIT-2.0 total scores (None-to-Mild 47% vs 100%, Moderate 42% vs 0%, Severe-to-Very severe 11% vs 0%; p = 0.001) compared to those limited esophageal and pharyngeal involvement. By multivariate analysis, aspiration and/or penetration was associated with pharyngeal vallecular residue (Odds ratio (OR) 3.71; p = 0.012) and esophageal residue (OR 2.92; p = 0.011), and higher UCLA GIT-2.0 scores for diarrhea (OR 3.68; p = 0.028) and the total score (OR 4.21; p = 0.046). CONCLUSION: In our study, about half of the patients had aspiration and/or penetration in SSc. Aspiration was associated with the extent of radiographic abnormalities of pharyngeal and esophageal involvement on the VF swallowing study. Patients with lower GI have aspiration and high UCLA GIT-2.0 scores suggesting that these patients had more severe GI manifestation.

Background The economic burden on individuals with stroke is a major concern, and measures to mitigate the negative effects of stroke on labor productivity are imperative. However, few studies have explored the return to work (RTW) of individuals with stroke after their discharge from rehabilitation wards. We therefore aimed to explore the proportion of patients with stroke who returned to work after discharge from a convalescent rehabilitation ward and to explore the characteristics of patients with stroke who achieve RTW compared to those who do not. Methods This descriptive study was conducted in a convalescent rehabilitation ward at a university hospital in Japan. It included patients with stroke in the working-age population (15–64 years) who worked before the onset and were discharged from the rehabilitation ward to their homes between January 2018 and April 2022. The participants were required to respond to a questionnaire, which was sent by mail, and the RTW status at 6 months after discharge from the rehabilitation ward was investigated. They were classified into RTW and non-RTW groups, and their characteristics were compared between the groups. Results Fifty-nine patients [mean (SD) age 53.0 (9.0) years; 42 men] among 125 who met the criteria returned the questionnaire, and their data were included in the analysis. Thirty-nine individuals [66.1%; mean (SD) age 53.0 (8.2) years; 31 men] achieved RTW. Compared to the non-RTW group, the RTW group had significantly higher total functional independence measure (FIM) scores at admission (p = 0.046) and discharge (p &amp;lt; 0.001), a significantly shorter duration of ward stay during hospitalization (p = 0.002), and a significantly smaller proportion of patients with aphasia (p = 0.019). Conclusion Two-thirds of the patients in this study population had achieved RTW at 6 months after discharge from the convalescent rehabilitation ward. Patients who achieved RTW had better motor function and FIM scores at discharge than those who did not.

This study aimed to establish reference values for quantitative measurements of pharyngeal volume and residue during swallowing in healthy individuals and to examine how these measurements are influenced by age, sex, height, and bolus properties. We performed a retrospective analysis of 288 swallows from 135 healthy Japanese adults (median age, 43 years; height, 163 cm) who underwent Swallowing CT. Test boluses included thin or extremely thick liquids in either 3 mL, 10 mL, or 20 mL amounts. Pharyngeal cavity volume at bolus hold (PVHOLD), unobliterated air and bolus volume at maximum pharyngeal constriction (PVMAX), and pharyngeal volume constriction ratio (PVCR), and post-swallow pharyngeal residue were measured on dynamic 3D-CT images using a semi-automated software. We determined the 2.5th, 50th, 97.5th percentile values to obtain normative reference values for each parameter and made generalized linear regression models to determine how these volume measurements are associated with demographic factors and bolus properties. Normative values (median [97.5th percentile]) across all swallows were PVHOLD 20.9 cm3 [38.6 cm3], PVMAX 0.3 cm3 [2.1 cm3], PVCR 98.8% [2.5th percentile 89.1%], and residue 0 cm3 [0.4 cm3]. Males exhibited larger values than females. PVHOLD significantly increased with height (β = 0.465, p < 0.001) and age (β = 0.068, p = 0.001), while PVMAX and PVCR increased with larger bolus volumes (β = 0.293, p = 0.005) and in thicker consistencies (β = 0.376, p = 0.017). Pharyngeal residue was present in 98/288 (34.0%) of swallows and was significantly associated with increasing bolus volume (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.865 [95% confidence interval: 1.275-2.727]), age (aOR = 1.025 [1.010-1.040]), thicker bolus (aOR = 1.806 [1.275-2.727]). Each 1 cm2 increase in PVMAX was associated with nearly double the odds of residue (aOR = 1.86 [1.202-2.862]). Similarly, each 1% decrease in PVCR corresponded to a 10.6% increase in the odds of residue (aOR = 1.106 [1.015-1.295]). These normative data provide a bases for comparing individuals with or without pharyngeal impairments.

BACKGROUND: The association between oral food intake and oral function during the subacute stage of stroke is not well known. OBJECTIVE: To investigate (1) oral function changes in subacute stroke patients and (2) association between oral function and oral intake status at several time points. METHODS: In a prospective study involving 324 stroke patients at a convalescent rehabilitation unit, four oral function parameters (maximum tongue pressure, MTP; lip-tongue motor function, LTMF; maximum occlusal force, MOF and oral health assessment tool, OHAT) were quantitatively measured upon admission (T0), at 1 month (T1) and 2 months (T2). Oral feeding status was assessed using the Functional Oral Intake Scale (FOIS) and divided based on the FOIS score into the dysphagic and regular diet groups. The changes in oral functions at the three time points were tested using generalized estimating equation analysis. The association between FOIS groups and oral functions at T1 and T2 was analysed by means of logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: All oral function parameters improved significantly over time during the hospital stay (mean differences: 4.9 for MTP, 0.6 for LTMF, 1.1 for MOF and -1.8 for OHAT). The FOIS groups were significantly associated with MTP (p < .05) and OHAT (p < .05) at both T1 and T2. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that oral function significantly improves in patients during subacute stroke rehabilitation and better oral health can be associated with better oral intake. Improved oral function through dental intervention and oral rehabilitation may contribute to gains in oral food intake.

BACKGROUND: Upper oesophageal sphincter (UES) serves as an important anatomical and functional landmark during swallowing. However, the precise UES location before and during swallowing has not been well established. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine upper oesophageal sphincter (UES) location and displacement during swallowing accounting for sex, age, and height in healthy adults using 320-row area detector computed tomography (320-ADCT). METHODS: Ninety-four healthy adults (43 males; 22-90 years) underwent 320-ADCT scanning while swallowing one trial of 10 mL honey thick barium. UES location at bolus hold and at maximum displacement and vertical displacement during swallowing were identified using the coordinates and the section classification of vertebrae (VERT scale). The differences and correlations of UES location and distance in terms of sex, age, and height were analysed using Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman's correlation coefficient. RESULTS: UES locations at bolus hold and at maximum displacement were significantly lower and UES vertical displacement was significantly larger in males than in females (p < .001). UES location at bolus hold became lower with increasing age (r = -.312, p = .002), but the negative correlation was low at maximum displacement (r = -.230, p = .026), resulting in larger vertical distance with ageing. UES locations showed high negative correlation at bolus hold with height (r = -.715, p < .001), and showed moderate negative correlation at maximum displacement with height (r = -.555, p < .001), although this effect was unclear when analysed by sex. CONCLUSION: Males showed lower UES location and larger displacement than females. The impact of age was evident with lower location before swallowing and larger displacement during swallowing. Differences observed by sex were not completely explained by using the VERT scale to adjust for height.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the functional outcomes of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) who underwent a new protocol-based rehabilitation program. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we enrolled patients who were hospitalised in a university hospital in Japan because of COVID-19 from 1st September, 2020-5th July, 2021. The primary outcome was the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) subtotal score for motor items at discharge. The secondary outcomes included the FIM cognitive subtotal score, length of hospital stay, rehabilitation period, total rehabilitation time, final rehabilitation protocol level, and discharge destination. RESULTS: Of the 78 enrolled patients (49 men; mean age [standard deviation], 70.3 [13.9] years), 24 died (30.8%) during hospitalisation. Disease severity was classified as mild, moderate I, moderate II, and severe in 1, 6, 41, and 30 patients, respectively. The FIM motor subtotal score differed significantly among groups for all participants (p=0.027). Post hoc analysis revealed that the FIM motor subtotal score in the severe group was significantly lower than that in the moderate II group (p=0.030). CONCLUSIONS: Disease severity significantly affected patients' functional outcome for COVID-19 at discharge. Our protocol-based program provides a benchmark for COVID-19 rehabilitation in an acute care setting.

Objectives: Hyolaryngeal movement during swallowing is essential to airway protection and bolus clearance. Although palpation is widely used to evaluate hyolaryngeal motion, insufficient accuracy has been reported. The Bando Stretchable Strain Sensor for Swallowing (B4S™) was developed to capture hyolaryngeal elevation and display it as waveforms. This study compared laryngeal movement time detected by the B4S™ with laryngeal movement time measured by videofluoroscopy (VF). Methods: Participants were 20 patients without swallowing difficulty (10 men, 10 women; age 30.6 ± 7.1 years). The B4S™ was attached to the anterior neck and two saliva swallows were measured on VF images to determine the relative and absolute reliability of laryngeal elevation time measured on VF and that measured by the B4S™. Results: The intra-class correlation coefficient of the VF and B4S™ times was very high [ICC (1.1) = 0.980]. A Bland-Altman plot showed a strong positive correlation with a 95% confidence interval of 0.00-3.01 for the mean VF time and mean B4S™ time, with a fixed error detected in the positive direction but with no proportional error detected. Thus, the VF and B4S™ time measurements showed high consistency. Conclusion: The strong relative and absolute reliability suggest that the B4S™ can accurately detect the duration of superior-inferior laryngeal motion during swallowing. Further study is needed to develop a method for measuring the distance of laryngeal elevation. It is also necessary to investigate the usefulness of this device for evaluation and treatment in clinical settings.

Objective: To compare the functional outcomes of patients with lower limb amputations receiving haemodialysis and those not receiving haemodialysis.Design: A retrospective cohort study. Patients: Patients with lower limb amputation who were admitted to a convalescent rehabilitation ward between January 2018 and December 2021.Methods: The primary outcome was the effectiveness of the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) during hospitalisation in the ward. Secondary outcomes included the total and subtotal (motor/cognitive) FIM scores at discharge, gain in the total and subtotal (motor/cognitive) FIM scores, K-level at discharge, length of hospital stay in the ward, rehabilitation time, and discharge destination. Outcomes were compared between the non-haemodialysis and haemodialysis groups.Results: A total of 28 patients (mean [standard deviation] age, 67.0 [11.9] years; men, 20) were enrolled in this study. Among them, 11 patients underwent haemodialysis. The FIM effectiveness was significantly higher in the non-haemodialysis group than in the haemodialysis group (median [interquartile range], 0.78 [0.72 – 0.81] vs 0.65 [0.28 – 0.75], p = 0.038). The amount of rehabilitation and all secondary outcomes were not significantly different between the groups (p &gt; 0.05).Conclusion: Patients with lower limb amputation who were receiving haemodialysis had poorer FIM effectiveness than those not receiving haemodialysis.LAY ABSTRACTChronic kidney disease is a risk factor for foot ulcers and lower limb amputation. Thus, patients with lower limb amputation often require maintenance dialysis. However, there is a lack of knowledge on whether patients with lower limb amputation receiving haemodialysis can achieve functional outcomes comparable to those not receiving haemodialysis. This study aimed to compare functional outcomes between patients with lower limb amputations receiving haemodialysis and those not receiving haemodialysis. This retrospective cohort study enrolled 28 patients who underwent amputation surgery and were admitted to a rehabilitation ward, including 11 patients undergoing haemodialysis (8 with diabetic nephropathy, 1 with chronic glomerulonephritis, 1 with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, and 1 with acute kidney injury). Although the amount of rehabilitation did not differ between groups, the improvement in the activities of daily living was significantly better in the non-haemodialysis group than in the haemodialysis group. Thus, even the same amount of rehabilitation for patients with lower limb amputations receiving haemodialysis may not lead to functional outcomes comparable to those without haemodialysis.

BACKGROUND: The chin-down posture is often used as a compensatory manoeuvre for patients with dysphagia. This posture presumably involves flexion of the head and/or neck, but this is not clearly defined. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the effects of head flexion posture in a retrospective study of videofluoroscopic examination of swallowing (VF). METHODS: A total of 73 patients who underwent VF both with and without head flexion posture in the lateral projection were included in the analysis. The head and neck angles at the initiation of the swallowing reflex, penetration-aspiration scale (PAS), nasopharyngeal closure time, stage transition duration, duration of laryngeal closure, time from swallowing reflex to laryngeal closure and to the opening of upper oesophageal sphincter (UES), duration of UES opening, location of the bolus leading edge at swallowing reflex, and bolus transition time were evaluated. RESULTS: The head flexion angle increased (p < 0.001), but the neck flexion angle did not change in the head flexion posture. Moreover, PAS improved (p < 0.001), aspiration was reduced (p < 0.001), the time between the swallowing reflex and the onset of laryngeal closure was shortened (p = 0.006), and the leading edge of the bolus at swallowing reflex became shallower (p = 0.004) in the head flexion posture. Other parameters did not significantly change. CONCLUSION: The head flexion posture resulted in earlier laryngeal closure and a shallower position of the leading bolus edge at swallowing reflex, resulting in PAS improvement and decreased aspiration.

The previous studies reported that different volumes of thick liquid had an impact on spatiotemporal characteristics and pharyngeal response of swallowing. However, the bolus flow and swallowing motion pattern were different between thick and thin liquids. The effects of thin bolus volume on pharyngeal swallowing, especially true vocal cord (TVC) closure is still unclear. This study assessed the temporal characteristics when swallowing different volumes of thin liquid to determine the mechanical adaptation using 320-row area detector computed tomography (320-ADCT) and investigated a change of swallowing physiology including laryngeal closure, particularly TVC closure. Fourteen healthy women (28-45 years) underwent 320-ADCT while swallowing of 3, 10, and 20 ml of thin liquid barium in 45° semi-reclining position. Kinematic analysis was performed for each swallow including temporal characteristic, structural movements while swallowing, and maximal cross-sectional area of the upper esophageal sphincter (UES) opening. Bolus head reached to pharynx and esophagus earlier in larger volume significantly, indicating faster bolus transport as volume increased. There were significant effects on swallowing mechanism revealing earlier TVC closure and UES opening with increasing volume. Maximum cross-sectional area of the UES opening was increased to accommodate a larger bolus. Differences in mechanical adaptation through bolus transit and motion of swallowing structures were detected across increasing volumes. These volume-dependent adaptations potentially reduce the risk of aspiration. Understanding the swallowing physiological changes as volume increased is helpful for diagnosis and treatment of dysphagia patients as well as outcomes of swallowing rehabilitation in clinical practice.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship between patients' transfer ability and fall risk in stroke patients during hospitalization. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively enrolled 237 stroke patients who were transferred to a convalescent rehabilitation ward from acute wards in the same hospital. Using incident reports, we investigated their fall rates and activity status at the falls according to their transfer abilities, which were assessed with Functional Independence Measure (FIM) transfer scores. The bi-weekly time trend of fall rates in all patients and in three subgroups based on FIM transfer scores of 1-3, 4-5, and 6-7, and activity status at the falls, were investigated. In addition, changes of patients' transfer ability on admission, at the first fall, and at discharge were investigated among falling patients. RESULTS: The fall rate was the greatest in patients with a FIM transfer score of 4 (14.3 times/1000 person-days). The majority of falls for patients with a FIM transfer score of 1 occurred at the activity status of "on the bed" and "sitting", while three quarters of patients with a FIM score of 7 had falls during "standing" and "walking". No longitudinal trend in fall rates was found overall; however, the fall rate trends differed depending on the FIM transfer score. The majority of the patients who fell required full assistance for transfers upon admission but required no assistance at discharge. CONCLUSIONS: Fall risk differed among patients with various transfer abilities; the greatest risk was in those who needed minimal assistance for transfers.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to elucidate the effects of the tongue-hold swallow (THS) on the pharyngeal wall by quantifying posterior pharyngeal wall (PPW) anterior bulge during the THS. In addition, the effect of tongue protrusion length on the extent of pharyngeal wall anterior bulge was analysed. METHODS: Thirteen healthy subjects (6 males and 7 females, 23-43 years) underwent 320-row area detector CT during saliva swallow (SS) and THS at two tongue protrusion lengths (THS1 protrude the tongue as much as 1/3 of premeasured maximum tongue protrusion length (MTP-L) and THS2 protrude the tongue as much as 2/3 of MTP-L). To acquire images of the pharynx at rest, single-phase volume scanning was performed three times during usual breathing with no tongue protrusion (rest), protrusion of the tongue at 1/3 of MTP-L (rTHS1) and protrusion of the tongue at 2/3 of MTP-L (rTHS2). Length from cervical spine to PPW (PPW-AP) and the volume of pharyngeal cavity was measured and was compared between rest, rTHS1 and rTHS2 and between SS, THS1 and THS2. Correlation between MTP-L and PPW-AP was calculated in three conditions, SS, THS1 and THS2. RESULTS: PPW-AP at rest, rTHS1 and rTHS2 was 2.9 ± 0.6 mm, 3.0 ± 0.5 mm and 3.0 ± 0.5 mm, respectively, showing no significant differences across swallows. PPW-AP at the maximum pharyngeal constriction was 8.1 ± 2.0 mm, 9.1 ± 2.4 mm and 8.7 ± 2.0 mm in SS, THS1 and THS2, respectively. Compared to SS, PPW-AP in THS1 was significantly larger (p = 0.04) and PPW-AP in THS2 was not significantly different (p = 0.09). Pharyngeal volume at rest, rTHS1 and rTHS2 was 16.4 ± 5.2 mm3 , 18.4 ± 4.5 mm3 and 21.3 ± 6.2 mm3 , respectively. It was significantly larger during rTHS2 compared with rest or rTHS1 (rTHS2-rest p = 0.007, rTHS2-rTHS1 p = 0.007). Pharyngeal volume was completely obliterated (zero volume) at maximum pharyngeal contraction in all except one subject. There was no correlation between MTP-L and PPW-AP in any of the three conditions (SS, THS1 and THS2). DISCUSSION: This study demonstrated that the expanded pharyngeal cavity due to the tongue protrusion was completely obliterated by the increase in anterior motion of pharyngeal wall during THS. It also became clear that the degree of tongue protrusion did not linearly correlate with the movement of PPW during THS. There was no relationship between PPW motion and the MTP-L, suggesting that the effect of tongue protrusion is better determined in each subject by analysing the motion of PPW using imaging tools.

BACKGROUND: Electrical stimulation therapy is effective for patients with dysphagia. However, because of the pain, strong stimulation cannot be applied. Although magnetic stimulation induces less pain, there are no reports on magnetic stimulation being synchronised with a swallowing reflex. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine whether it is possible to induce magnetic stimulation during a voluntary swallowing using electromyography (EMG)-triggered peripheral magnetic stimulation and to evaluate its effect on healthy individuals. METHODS: A total of 20 healthy adults in seated position were instructed to swallow saliva and 10 ml of barium under videofluoroscopy. For concomitant use of magnetic stimulation, a magnetic stimulus for suprahyoid muscles at 30 Hz frequency was applied for 2 s when the EMG level in the sternohyoid muscle exceeded the threshold. During the voluntary swallowing, the movement of the hyoid bone and opening width of the upper oesophageal sphincter (UES) were measured. Furthermore, pressure topography was evaluated in 6 subjects using high-resolution manometry. RESULTS: The magnetic stimulation significantly extended the movement time of the hyoid bone (p < 0.001). During liquid deglutition, significant increases were observed in the anterior maximum movement distance of the hyoid bone (p < 0.05), opening width of the UES (p < 0.001) and anterior movement distance of the hyoid bone at the maximum UES opening (p < 0.01). In the pressure topography, the maximum pressure immediately after UES closure significantly decreased with magnetic stimulation (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: EMG-triggered peripheral magnetic stimulation made it possible to apply magnetic stimulation during a voluntary swallowing.

BACKGROUND: Stroke patients often suffer from dysphagia during their recovery. We hypothesised that subacute stroke patients with dysphagia had more deteriorated oral health status including muscle strength and motor function. OBJECTIVE: Quantitatively investigate oral health status and identify associations with oral feeding status in stroke patients admitted to a convalescent rehabilitation unit. METHODS: We prospectively recruited 187 stroke patients admitted to a convalescent rehabilitation unit. Oral feeding status was examined using the Functional Oral Intake Scale (FOIS), and the cohort was divided into three groups based on FOIS score as non-oral feeding (FOIS-123; 22 patients), dysphagic diet (FOIS-45; 74 patients), and regular diet (FOIS-67; 91 patients) groups. Activities of daily living (ADL) were assessed with the Functional Independence Measure (FIM). Oral health status was measured quantitatively in six oral function parameters and Oral Health Assessment Tool (OHAT), and differences according to the FOIS, age and FIM were statistically tested. RESULTS: In bivariate analysis, two parameters, tongue pressure and tongue-lip motor functions were significantly higher in the regular diet group than in the other groups (P < .01). Gross OHAT score was also significantly better in the regular diet group than in the other groups (P < .01). These significant associations mostly remained in the multiple model after adjusting for age and FIM. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that, amongst oral health status, tongue strength and motor function, as well as OHAT score, may have strong associations with oral feeding status in subacute stroke patients at convalescent rehabilitation units regardless of ADL levels.

ABSTRACT: Dysphagia is the difficulty in swallowing because of the presence of certain diseases; it particularly compromises the oral and/or pharyngeal stages. In severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, neuromuscular complications, prolonged bed rest, and endotracheal intubation target different levels of the swallowing network. Thus, critically ill patients are prone to dysphagia and aspiration pneumonia. In this review, we first discuss the possible cause and pathophysiology underlying dysphagia associated with coronavirus disease 2019, including cerebrovascular events, such as stroke, encephalomyelitis, encephalopathy, peripheral neuropathy, and myositis, that may lead to the dysphagia reported as a complication associated with the coronavirus disease 2019. Next, we present some recommendations for dysphagia evaluation with modifications that would allow a safe and comprehensive assessment based on available evidence to date, including critical considerations of the appropriate use of personal protective equipment and optimization individual's noninstrumental swallowing tasks evaluation, while preserving instrumental assessments for urgent cases only. Finally, we discuss a practical managing strategy for dysphagia rehabilitation to ensure safe and efficient practice in the risks of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 exposure, in which swallowing therapy using newer technology, such as telerehabilitation system or wearable device, would be considered as a useful option.