西野 真木

Abstract We analyze data acquired by the Kaguya satellite on 14 October 2008 when the Moon was in the terrestrial magnetotail lobe to gain new insight into the energization of ions originating from the Moon. The Moon‐originating ions were detected over a broad range of latitudes from −80° to 50° above the Moon's dayside at ∼100 km altitude. The fluxes of the Moon‐originating ions were observed at energies from ∼50 to ∼1,000 eV. Additionally, these ions exhibited a wide distribution pitch angle spanning from ∼45 to 90°. The energy levels of ions originating from the Moon show rapid changes, either increasing or decreasing by a factor of ∼10 within 8 min without the solar zenith angle dependence. Such rapid energy changes were observed over the highland regions. These observations are discussed in light of possible acceleration mechanisms of Moon‐originating ions, including temporal and spatial effects.

Abstract In the tenuous atmospheric bodies of our solar system, space weathering on the celestial surface is an important process for its chemical and physical evolution and ambient environment on timescales of celestial evolution. Space plasma is a dominant energy and material source for space weathering. Plasma irradiation experiment in the laboratory is an effective method for modeling space weathering driven by space plasma. However, comprehensive modeling of plasma space weathering has not yet been conducted because the capabilities of the earlier facilities were not optimized for realistic space weathering; for example, the incident electron and ion were not irradiated in the same condition. Here, we developed a plasma irradiation system, Plasma Irradiation Emulator for Celestial Environments (PIECE) of the solar system bodies, which reproduces plasma space weathering in tenuous atmospheric bodies by the electron and ion irradiations in the same condition. We successfully developed a system with high electron and ion number fluxes of $$\sim 10^{13} - 10^{16} {\text{ particles cm } }^{ { - {2 } } } {\text{s } }^{ { - {1 } } }$$ at any acceleration energy in the range of 1–30 keV, which leads to a fluence of e.g., $$\sim 10^{18} - 10^{21} {\text{ particles cm } }^{ { - {2 } } } {\text{s } }^{ { - {1 } } }$$, with a 1-day irradiation time. This fluence corresponds to a plasma irradiation time of ~ 10³–10⁶ years on Europa. Graphical Abstract

Abstract Due to the lack of a dense atmosphere, the Moon directly interacts with ambient plasmas and solar radiation, leading to lunar surface charging. Solar X‐rays drive the emission of photoelectrons and Auger electrons from the lunar surface to space. The Auger electrons have characteristic energies intrinsic to the photo‐emitting atoms and were recently identified at the Moon by Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence, and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun (ARTEMIS) observations. In this study, we developed a numerical model of the energy spectrum of lunar photoelectrons and Auger electrons, thereby comparing the predicted and observed energy spectra. By adjusting a scaling factor, the model well reproduces the ARTEMIS observations obtained in the solar wind, where the energy spectra are minimally affected by surface charging. Meanwhile, the energy spectra obtained in the geomagnetic tail can be significantly altered by lunar surface potentials. We show that it is difficult to determine a unique combination of the scaling factor and the lunar surface potential with the ARTEMIS energy resolution because of a strong parameter degeneracy. Nevertheless, for a fixed scaling factor, a strong correlation is identified between the lunar surface potentials inferred from the shifts of the energy spectra and those from the upward photoelectron beam energies, providing a proof of concept for the use of the photo‐emitted electrons as a new remote sensing tool of the lunar surface potential. We advocate for future observations of lunar electrons with a high energy resolution. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Abstract The density of the solar wind plasma near the Earth’s magnetosphere sometimes decreases to only several per cent of the usual value, and such density extrema result in a significant reduction of the dynamic pressure and Alfvén Mach number ($$M_A$$) of the solar wind flow. While a symmetric expansion of the Earth’s magnetosphere by the low dynamic pressure was assumed in previous studies, a global magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulation study predicted a remarkable dawn-dusk asymmetry of the magnetospheric shape under low-density solar wind and Parker-spiral interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) configuration. Here, we present observations consistent with the asymmetric deformation of the magnetosphere under low-$$M_A$$ solar wind and Parker-spiral IMF conditions, focusing on the significant expansion of the dawn-flank magnetosphere detected by the Geotail spacecraft. A global MHD simulation reproduced the dawnward expansion of the near-Earth magnetosphere, which was consistent with the observation by Geotail. The solar wind flow had a non-negligible dusk-to-dawn component and partly affected the dawnward expansion of the magnetosphere. Local, roughly Alfvénic sunward acceleration of magnetosheath ions at the dawn flank magnetopause suggests magnetosheath plasma entry into the magnetosphere through open field lines generated by magnetic reconnection at the dayside magnetopause. At the same time, Cluster 1 and 3, located near the southern polar cusp, also detected continuous antisunward ion jets and occasional sunward jets, which are consistent with the occurrence of magnetic reconnection near the southern cusp. These observations suggest that enhanced plasma acceleration at the dayside magnetopause operates under the low-$$M_A$$ solar wind and Parker spiral IMF conditions and that plasma influx across the dawnside magnetopause is at work under such a low-$$M_A$$ condition. These results can be helpful in understanding interactions between low-$$M_A$$ solar/stellar winds and celestial objects, such as inner planets and exoplanets. Graphic Abstract

The Moon and Mercury are airless bodies, thus they are directly exposed to the ambient plasma (ions and electrons), to photons mostly from the Sun from infrared range all the way to X-rays, and to meteoroid fluxes. Direct exposure to these exogenic sources has important consequences for the formation and evolution of planetary surfaces, including altering their chemical makeup and optical properties, and generating neutral gas exosphere. The formation of a thin atmosphere, more specifically a surface bound exosphere, the relevant physical processes for the particle release, particle loss, and the drivers behind these processes are discussed in this review.

Abstract Wave–particle interactions are fundamental processes in space plasma, and some plasma waves, including electrostatic solitary waves (ESWs), are recognised as broadband noises (BBNs) in the electric field spectral data. Spacecraft observations in recent decades have detected BBNs around the Moon, but the generation mechanism of the BBNs is not fully understood. Here, we study a wake boundary traversal with BBNs observed by Kaguya, which includes an ESW event previously reported by Hashimoto et al. Geophys Res Lett 37:L19204 https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044529 (2010). Focusing on the relation between BBNs and electron pitch-angle distribution functions, we show that upward electron beams from the nightside lunar surface are effective for the generation of BBNs, in contrast to the original interpretation by Hashimoto et al. Geophys Res Lett 37:L19204 https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044529 (2010) that high-energy electrons accelerated by strong ambipolar electric fields excite ESWs in the region far from the Moon. When the BBNs were observed by the Kaguya spacecraft in the wake boundary, the spacecraft’s location was magnetically connected to the nightside lunar surface, and bi-streaming electron distributions of downward-going solar wind strahl component and upward-going field-aligned beams (at ~124 eV) were detected. The interplanetary magnetic field was dominated by a positive BZ (i.e. the northward component), and strahl electrons travelled in the antiparallel direction to the interplanetary magnetic field (i.e. southward), which enabled the strahl electrons to precipitate onto the nightside lunar surface directly. The incident solar wind electrons cause negative charging of the nightside lunar surface, which generates downward electric fields that accelerate electrons from the nightside surface toward higher altitudes along the magnetic field. The bidirectional electron distribution is not a sufficient condition for the BBN generation, and the distribution of upward electron beams seems to be correlated with the BBNs. Ambipolar electric fields in the wake boundary should also contribute to the electron acceleration toward higher altitudes and further intrusion of the solar wind ions into the deeper wake. We suggest that solar wind ion intrusion into the wake boundary is also an important factor that controls the BBN generation by facilitating the influx of solar wind electrons there.

Abstract The Advanced Small Analyzer for Neutrals (ASAN) on board the Chang’E-4 Yutu-2 rover first detected energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) originating from the lunar surface at various lunar local times on the lunar farside. In this work, we examine the ENA energy spectra, obtained in the first 23 lunar days from 2019 January 11 to 2020 October 12, and find a higher ENA differential flux on the lunar dawnside than on the duskside. Combined with Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun (ARTEMIS) data, we analyze the correlation between the ENA differential flux and solar wind parameters, such as flux, density, dynamic pressure, and velocity, for each ASAN energy channel on the dawnside and duskside. The results show that ENA differential flux is positively correlated with solar wind flux, density, and dynamic pressure and relatively lower on the duskside than on the dawnside. To determine the relationship between solar wind energy and ENA energy, we analyze the correlation between solar wind energy and ENA cutoff energy and temperature on the dawnside and duskside. The results show that the ENA cutoff energy and temperature are lower on the duskside than on the dawnside at the same solar wind energy. The difference between the ENA–solar wind observation on the dawnside and duskside is possibly caused by solar wind deflection and deceleration on the duskside, which can be attributed to the interaction between solar wind and the lunar magnetic anomalies located nearby in the northwestern direction of the Chang’E-4 landing site.

<title>Abstract</title>The mass spectrum analyzer (MSA) will perform in situ observations of ions and magnetic fields around Phobos as part of the Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) mission to investigate the origin of the Martian moons and physical processes in the Martian environment. MSA consists of an ion energy mass spectrometer and two magnetometers which will measure velocity distribution functions and mass/charge distributions of low-energy ions and magnetic field vectors, respectively. For the MMX scientific objectives, MSA will observe solar wind ions, those scattered at the Phobos surface, water-related ions generated in the predicted Martian gas torus, secondary ions sputtered from Phobos, and escaping ions from the Martian atmosphere, while monitoring the surrounding magnetic field. MSA will be developed from previous instruments for space plasma missions such as Kaguya, Arase, and BepiColombo/Mio to contribute to the MMX scientific objectives.

The Moon drives observable perturbations in the upstream solar wind in a similar manner to the terrestrial foreshock. Recent observations suggested that lunar dayside electrostatic waves can arise from two different driving mechanisms, both involving reflected particles from lunar crustal magnetic fields. However, their association with the global distribution of lunar magnetic anomalies have not been fully characterized. Here we exploit polar orbiting Kaguya to generate first global maps of electrostatic waves and solar wind electron modification above the day side of the Moon. The maps clearly demonstrate that the two signatures are correlated with lunar crustal magnetic fields. Additionally, we observe different characteristics of electron modification for different interplanetary magnetic field orientations. The lunar crustal magnetic fields cause a wide range of reflected electron and ion intensities, thereby serving as a test bed to investigate the relative roles of reflected particles on wave excitation and particle heating.

BepiColombo Mio (previously called MMO: Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter) was successfully launched by Ariane 5 from Kourou, French Guiana on October 20, 2018. The Mercury Plasma/Particle Experiment (MPPE) is a comprehensive instrument package onboard Mio spacecraft used for plasma, high-energy particle and energetic neutral atom measurements. It consists of seven sensors including two Mercury Electron Analyzers (MEA1 and MEA2), Mercury Ion Analyzer (MIA), Mass Spectrum Analyzer (MSA), High Energy Particle instrument for electron (HEP-ele), High Energy Particle instrument for ion (HEP-ion), and Energetic Neutrals Analyzer (ENA). Significant efforts were made pre-flight to calibrate all of the MPPE sensors at the appropriate facilities on the ground. High voltage commissioning of MPPE analyzers was successfully performed between June and August 2019 and in February 2020 following the completion of the low voltage commissioning in November 2018. Although all of the MPPE analyzers are now ready to begin observation, the full service performance has been delayed until Mio’s arrival at Mercury. Most of the fields of view (FOVs) of the MPPE analyzers are blocked by the thermal shield surrounding the Mio spacecraft during the cruising phase. Together with other instruments on Mio including Magnetic Field Investigation (MGF) and Plasma Wave Investigation (PWI) that measure plasma field parameters, MPPE will contribute to the comprehensive understanding of the plasma environment around Mercury when BepiColombo/Mio begins observation after arriving at the planet Mercury in December 2025.

Volatiles and refractories represent the two end-members in the volatility range of species in any surface-bounded exosphere. Volatiles include elements that do not interact strongly with the surface, such as neon (detected on the Moon) and helium (detected both on the Moon and at Mercury), but also argon, a noble gas (detected on the Moon) that surprisingly adsorbs at the cold lunar nighttime surface. Refractories include species such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum, all of which have very strong bonds with the lunar surface and thus need energetic processes to be ejected into the exosphere. Here we focus on the properties of species that have been detected in the exospheres of inner Solar System bodies, specifically the Moon and Mercury, and how they provide important information to understand source and loss processes of these exospheres, as well as their dependence on variations in external drivers.

Cometary tails visually manifest the solar wind and became an initial hint for its discovery. While the solar wind is being directly monitored with satellites, its time series before the space age has been controversially reconstructed with multiple proxies. Recently, archival reports of cometary plasma tails have been subjected to consideration to indirectly measure the solar wind but brought conclusion that no plasma tails had been reported prior to 1769 probably due to their brightness. However, historical records have occasionally reported comets with two tails even before 1769. These cases have been tentatively associated with visual reports of cometary plasma and dust tails. Therefore, we examined three such cases (C/1577 V1, 1P/837, and 1P/760), and compared the descriptions in historical records with calculated direction of their plasma tails. Our comparisons show that the records and calculations agree in these cases and plasma tails were visually recorded corresponding to these three great comets. These cases certify the capability of plasma tail observations with the unaided eye even before 1769, qualitatively imply their extreme brightness, proximities with the Sun and the Earth, relative enhancements of UV radiations, and interaction of cometary neutral atmosphere with solar wind plasma and magnetic field, while the lack of their detailed length or kink hinders us from their quantitative measuring. Further investigations will likely lead to the re-discovery of even more visual evidence of cometary plasma tails and, hence, improve our understanding on past space climate.

Narrowband electromagnetic ion cyclotron waves first discovered by the Apollo 15 and 16 Lunar Surface Magnetometers were surveyed in the magnetic field data obtained by the Kaguya satellite at an altitude of ∼100 km above the Moon in the tail lobe and plasma sheet boundary layer of the Earth's magnetosphere. The frequencies of the waves were typically 0.7 times the local proton cyclotron frequency, and 75% of the waves were left hand polarized with respect to the background magnetic field. They had a significant compressional component and comprised several discrete packets. They were detected on the dayside, nightside, and above the terminator of the Moon, irrespective of the lunar magnetic anomaly, or the magnetic connection to the lunar surface. The waves with the same characteristics were detected by Geotail in the absence of the Moon in the magnetotail. The most likely energy source of the electromagnetic ion cyclotron waves is the ring beam ions in the plasma sheet boundary layer.

There forms a tenuous region called the wake behind the Moon in the solar wind, and plasma entry/refilling into the wake is a fundamental problem of the lunar plasma science. High-energy ions and electrons in the foreshock of the Earth's magnetosphere were detected at the lunar surface in the Apollo era, but their effects on the lunar night-side environment have never been studied. Here we show the first observation of bow-shock reflected protons by Kaguya (SELENE) spacecraft in orbit around the Moon, confirming that solar wind plasma reflected at the terrestrial bow shock can easily access the deepest lunar wake when the Moon stays in the foreshock (We name this mechanism type-3 entry'). In a continuous type-3 event, low-energy electron beams from the lunar night-side surface are not obvious even though the spacecraft location is magnetically connected to the lunar surface. On the other hand, in an intermittent type-3 entry event, the kinetic energy of upward-going field-aligned electron beams decreases from similar to 80 eV to similar to 20 eV or electron beams disappear as the bow-shock reflected ions come accompanied by enhanced downward electrons. According to theoretical treatment based on electric current balance at the lunar surface including secondary electron emission by incident electron and ion impact, we deduce that incident ions would be accompanied by a few to several times higher flux of an incident electron flux, which well fits observed downward fluxes. We conclude that impact by the bow-shock reflected ions and electrons raises the electrostatic potential of the lunar night-side surface. (C) 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

For five days of each lunar orbit, the Moon is shielded from solar wind bombardment by the Earths magnetosphere, which is filled with terrestrial ions. Although the possibility of the presence of terrestrial nitrogen and noble gases in lunar soil has been discussed based on their isotopic composition, complicated oxygen isotope fractionation in lunar metal(2,3) (particularly the provenance of a O-16-poor component) remains an enigma(4,5) . Here, we report observations from the Japanese spacecraft Kaguya of significant numbers of 110 keV O+ ions, seen only when the Moon was in the Earths plasma sheet. Considering the penetration depth into metal of O+ ions with such energy, and the O-16-poor mass-independent fractionation of the Earths upper atmosphere 6 , we conclude that biogenic terrestrial oxygen has been transported to the Moon by the Earth wind (at least 2.6 x104 ions cm(-2) s(-1)) and implanted into the surface of the lunar regolith, at around tens of nanometres in depth (3,4) . We suggest the possibility that the Earths atmosphere of billions of years ago may be preserved on the present-day lunar surface.

We consider a three-dimensional electromagnetic particle-in-cell simulation of the boundary layer current in a minimagnetosphere created by the interaction between a magnetized plasma flow, which models the typical solar wind, and a small-scale magnetic dipole, which represents the Reiner Gamma magnetic anomaly on the lunar surface. The size of this magnetic anomaly (measured as the distance from the dipole center to the position where the pressure of the local magnetic field equals the dynamic pressure of the solar wind) is one quarter that of the Larmor radius of the solar wind ions. In spite of the weak magnetization of the ions, a minimagnetosphere is formed above the magnetic anomaly. In the boundary layer of the minimagnetosphere, the electron current is dominant. Due to the intense electric field induced by charge separation, electrons entering the boundary layer undergo E x B drift. In each hemisphere, the electron boundary current due to the drift shows a structure where the convection reverses; these structures are symmetric with respect to the magnetic equator. Detailed analysis of the electron cyclotron motion shows that electrons at the edge of the inner boundary layer obtain maximum velocity by the electric field acceleration due to the charge separation, not due to the drift of the electron's guiding center. The maximum electron velocity is approximately 8 times that of the upstream plasma. The width of the boundary layer current becomes approximately equal to the radius of the local electron cyclotron.

The Moon possesses a long tail of neutral sodium atoms that are emitted from the lunar surface and transported anti-sunward by the solar radiation pressure. Since the earth crosses the lunar sodium tail for a few days around the new moon, the resonant light emission from sodium atoms can be detected from the ground. Here we show the first long-term (16 years) observation of the lunar sodium tail, using an all-sky imager at Shigaraki Observatory (35 degrees N, 136 degrees E), Japan. We have surveyed our database of all-sky sodium images at a wavelength of 5893 nm to find more than 20 events in which a bright spot emerges around the anti-lunar point during the new moon periods. We could not find any clear correlation between the sodium brightness and solar wind parameters (density, speed, dynamic pressure, and F10.7 index). In particular, no enhancement of the sodium spot brightness is detected even under very high density solar wind conditions (70 cm(-3); an order-of-magnitude higher than usual), which means that solar wind sputtering is not a principal mechanism of the formation of the lunar sodium tail. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

We study hydrogen energetic neutral atom (ENA) emissions from the lunar surface, when the Moon is inside the terrestrial magnetosheath. The ENAs are generated by neutralization and backscattering of incident protons of solar wind origin. First, we model the effect of the increased ion temperature in the magnetosheath (&gt;10 times larger than that in the undisturbed solar wind) on the ENA scattering characteristics. Then, we apply these models to ENA measurements by Chandrayaan-1 and simultaneous ion measurements by Kaguya at the Moon, in the magnetosheath. We produce maps of the ENA scattering fraction, covering a region at the lunar near-side that includes mare and highland surfaces and several lunar magnetic anomalies. We see clear signatures of plasma shielding by the magnetic anomalies. The maps are made at different lunar local times, and the results indicate an extended influence and altered morphology of the magnetic anomalies at shallower incidence angles of the magnetosheath protons. The scattering fraction from the unmagnetized regions remains consistent with that in the undisturbed solar wind (10%-20%). Moreover, the observed ENA energy spectra are well reproduced by our temperature-dependent model. We conclude that the ENA scattering process is unchanged in the magnetosheath. Similarly to the undisturbed solar wind case, it is only magnetic anomalies that provide contrast in the ENA maps, not any selenomorphological features such as mare and highland regions.

The dayside electrostatic environment near the lunar surface is governed by interactions among the solar wind plasma, photoelectrons, and the charged lunar surface, providing topologically complex boundaries to the plasma. Three-dimensional, particle-in-cell simulations are applied to recently discovered vertical holes on the Moon, which have spatial scales of tens of meters and greater depth-to-diameter ratios than typical impact craters. The vertical wall of the hole introduces a new boundary for both photo and solar wind electrons. The current balance condition established at a hole bottom is altered by the limited solar wind electron penetration into the hole due to loss at the wall and photoelectron current path connecting the hole bottom and wall surfaces. The self-consistent modeling not only reproduces intense differential charging between sunlit and shadowed surfaces, but also reveals the potential difference between sunlit surfaces inside and outside the hole, demonstrating the uniqueness of the near-hole electrostatic environment. (C) 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Plasma signature around crustal magnetic fields is one of the most important topics of the lunar plasma sciences. Although recent spacecraft measurements are revealing solar-wind interaction with the lunar crustal fields on the dayside, plasma signatures around crustal fields on the night side have not been fully studied yet. Here we show evidence of plasma trapping on the closed field lines of the lunar crustal fields in the solar-wind wake, using SELENE (Kaguya) plasma and magnetic field data obtained at 14-15 km altitude from the lunar surface. In contrast to expectation on plasma cavity formation at the strong crustal fields, electron flux is enhanced above Crisium Antipode (CA) anomaly which is one of the strongest lunar crustal fields. The enhanced electron fluxes above CA are characterised by (1) occasional bi-directional field-aligned beams in the lower energy range (&lt;150 eV) and (2) a medium energy component (150-300 eV) that has a double loss-cone distribution representing bounce motion between the two footprints of the crustal magnetic fields. The low-energy electrons on the closed field lines may come from the lunar night side surface, while supply mechanism of medium-energy electrons on the closed field line remains to be solved. We also report that a density cavity in the wake is observed not above the strongest magnetic field but in its vicinity. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

In the Earth's magnetotail, Japanese Moon orbiter Kaguya repeatedly encountered the plasmoid or plasma sheet. The encounters were characterized by the low energy ion signatures including lobe cold ions, cold ion acceleration in the plasma sheet-lobe boundaries, and hot plasma sheet ions or fast flowing ions associated with plasmoids. Different from the previous observations made in the magnetotail by the GEOTAIL spacecraft, the ions were affected by the existence of the Moon. On the dayside of the Moon, tailward flowing cold ions and their acceleration were observed. However, on the night side, tailward flowing cold ions could not be observed since the Moon blocked them. In stead, ion acceleration by the spacecraft potential and the electron beam accelerated by the potential difference between lunar surface and spacecraft were simultaneously observed. These electron and ion data enabled us to determine the night side lunar surface potential and spacecraft potential only from the observed data for the first time.

The lunar exosphere is generated by several processes each of which generates neutral distributions with different spatial and temporal variability. Solar wind sputtering of the lunar surface is a major process for many regolith-derived species and typically generates neutral distributions with a cosine dependence on solar zenith angle. Complicating this picture are remanent crustal magnetic anomalies on the lunar surface, which decelerate and partially reflect the solar wind before it strikes the surface. We use Kaguya maps of solar wind reflection efficiencies, Lunar Prospector maps of crustal field strengths, and published neutral sputtering yields to calculate anisotropic solar wind sputtering maps. We feed these maps to a Monte Carlo neutral exospheric model to explore three-dimensional exospheric anisotropies and find that significant anisotropies should be present in the neutral exosphere depending on selenographic location and solar wind conditions. Better understanding of solar wind/crustal anomaly interactions could potentially improve our results. © 2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

We investigate Kaguya observation of ion acceleration around a lunar crustal magnetic anomaly located in the South Pole-Aitken basin at an altitude of 100 km. The accelerated ions in the 230 eV to 1.5 keV energy range were identified by a characteristic dispersion signature in the energy-time spectrogram that appeared repeatedly upon Kaguya's approach to the magnetic anomaly. The interplanetary magnetic field was almost parallel to the solar wind velocity and thus the electric field was very small. The results of our analysis show that ions with energies below 230 eV were accelerated up to 1.5 keV by an electric field produced by the interaction between the solar wind and the magnetic anomaly. We argue that the low-energy ions mainly originated from the solar wind ions with energies of 450 eV that were backscattered on the lunar surface. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

We present latitude and longitude distributions of Na+ and K+ fluxes from the Moon derived from Kaguya low-energy ion data. Although the latitude distribution agrees with previous ground-based telescope observations, dawn-dusk asymmetry has been determined in the longitude distribution. Our model of the lunar surface abundance and yield of Na and K demonstrates that the abundance decreases to approximately 50% at dusk compared with that at dawn due to the emission of the exospheric particles assuming the ion fluxes observed by Kaguya are proportional to the yield. It is also implied that the surface abundance of Na and K need to be supplied during the night to explain the observed lunar exosphere with dawn-dusk asymmetry. We argue that the interplanetary dust as well as grain diffusion and migration/recycling of the exospheric particles may be major suppliers. Key Points Kaguya data present structure of the ionized lunar alkali exospheres We found dawn-dusk asymmetry in the longitude distribution Our model shows that the surface abundance decreases to 50% ©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

Our recent observations around the Moon revealed that so-called type-II (T2) entry of the solar wind protons into the near-Moon wake occurs when the IMF is dominated by the non-radial components (i.e. By and/or B-z). Under this condition a part of the solar wind protons scattered/reflected at the lunar dayside surface subsequently enters the central region of the near-Moon wake after a large-scale cycloid motion, which accelerates electrons along the filed line into the wake. The situation handled in the previous studies is that the relevant magnetic field line is detached from the lunar surface, leaving a possibility of the 12 entry under magnetic connection left open. Here we report that the protons can access the central wake region that is magnetically connected to the lunar nightside surface, which we categorize into the T2 entry with magnetic connection to the lunar surface (T2MC). Furthermore we show that the energy of the electron beams induced by the proton entry into the wake depends on the magnetic connectivity. Strong electron acceleration (up to several hundred eV to 1 key) along the magnetic field associated with the 12 entry is prominent when the field line has its both ends in the solar wind, that is, when the magnetic field is detached from the lunar surface (i.e. the previously reported 12 entry that we rename to T2MD). On the other hand, no significant electron acceleration is found in the T2MC cases, although an enhancement of the electron flux associated with the T2 proton entry is evident. We also report that the T2 entry process takes place even under radial (B-X-dominated) IMF condition. Our results indicate that, while the 12 entry of solar wind protons into the wake itself does not require a special IMF condition but is a rather general phenomenon, the characteristic energy of associated electrons does show a strong dependence on the magnetic connectivity to the lunar surface. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction: The Moon is the nearest celestial body to the Earth. As such, it has long been investigated to understand its formation and evolution, as a paradigm for better understanding the terrestrial planets, as well as all airless bodies in our solar system (e.g., Vesta, Phobos). The Moon's proximity to the Earth--more than one hundred times closer than any planet -- makes it a convenient target for exploration by spacecraft. Since the dawn of the space age in the previous century, we have explored the Moon with several spacecraft and even succeeded in sending astronauts there. One of the lessons of those explorations that hinders any future lunar expeditions is the severe conditions on the lunar surface. The lack of an atmosphere (10-12 torr) means that cosmic/galactic/solar rays, as well as the many micrometeorites directly striking the surface; in addition, surface temperatures vary widely, over a day-night range of more than 300 K.

The origins of the lunar crustal magnetic fields remain unclear although dozens of magnetic field measurements have been conducted on and above the lunar surface. A major obstacle to resolving this problem is the extreme difficulty of determining a surface distribution of small-scale magnetization. We present a new technique to map small-scale magnetic fields using nonadiabatic scattering of high-energy electrons in the terrestrial plasma sheet. Particle tracing, utilizing three-dimensional lunar magnetic field data synthesized from magnetometer measurements, enables us to separate the contributions to electron motion of small-and large-scale magnetic fields. We map significant kilometer-scale magnetic fields on the southwestern side of the South Pole-Aitken basin that are correlated with larger-scale magnetization. This implies that kilometer-scale magnetization may be ubiquitous over the lunar surface and related to the large-scale magnetization.

We study an interaction between the solar wind and crustal magnetic fields on the lunar surface using SELENE (Kaguya) data. It has been known that magnetic enhancements are at times detected near the limb external to the lunar wake, which is thus called lunar external magnetic enhancement (LEME), as a result of direct interaction between the solar wind and lunar crustal fields. Although previous observational studies showed that LEMEs in the high solar zenith angle region favor stronger interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) and higher solar wind density, the relation between the IMF and the crustal field orientation has not been taken into account. We show evidence that the relation between the IMF and crustal field orientation is also one of the key factors that control the extent of LEME, focusing on one-day observations at 100 km altitude that include data above strong crustal fields around South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin. Strong LEMEs are detected at 100 km altitude around SPA basin under the stronger and northward IMF condition, while they weaken under southward IMF. All LEME's peaks are located in the region where unperturbed crustal fields at 300 km altitude are directed northward while they are less related to unperturbed crustal fields at 100 km or lower, which suggests that lunar crustal fields are compressed by the solar wind dynamic pressure, and its large scale component parallel to the IMF is essential to the formation of the LEME. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Broadband whistler-mode waves in the frequency range from 0.1 to 10 Hz are detected near the Moon by the Lunar Magnetometer (LMAG) on board Kaguya. The generation process and statistical properties of the waves have not been understood yet. We analyze the distributions of their occurrence and reveal that most of the waves are generated by the solar wind interaction with lunar crustal magnetic field. We also clarify that the waves are observed when Kaguya is connected by the ambient magnetic field with the lunar surface. The statistical study indicates that the broadband waves are observed in the vicinity of the region where narrowband whistler-mode waves in the frequency of near 1 Hz are observed, showing the close relationship between them. The analysis of the wave vector directions suggests that these two types of waves are different views of the same waves propagating in the solar wind frame. The narrowband waves are possibly explained by a part of the broadband waves largely Doppler shifted in the spacecraft frame. The present results suggest a possible scenario of the generation process of the two types of waves through the solar wind interaction with the crustal magnetic field. Citation: Tsugawa, Y., et al. (2012), Statistical study of broadband whistler-mode waves detected by Kaguya near the Moon, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L16101, doi:10.1029/2012GL052818.

We have analyzed nongyrotropic electron velocity distribution functions (VDFs) obtained near the lunar surface. Electron VDFs, measured at 10-100 km altitude by Kaguya in both the solar wind and the Earth's magnetosphere, exhibit nongyrotropic empty regions associated with the 'gyroloss' effect i.e., electron absorption by the lunar surface combined with electron gyromotion. Particle-trace calculations allow us to derive theoretical forbidden regions in the electron VDFs, thereby taking into account the modifications due to nonuniform magnetic fields caused by diamagnetic-current systems, lunar-surface charging, and electric fields perpendicular to the magnetic field. Comparison between the observed empty regions with the theoretically derived forbidden regions suggests that various components modify the characteristics of the nongyrotropic electron VDFs depending on the ambient-plasma conditions. On the lunar nightside in the magnetotail lobes, negative surface potentials slightly reduce the size of the forbidden regions, but there are no distinct effects of either the diamagnetic current or perpendicular electric fields. On the dayside in the solar wind, the observations suggest the presence of either the diamagnetic-current or solar wind convection electric field effects, or both. In the terrestrial plasma sheet, all three mechanisms can substantially modify the characteristics of the forbidden regions. The observations imply the presence of a local electric field of at least 5 mV/m although the mechanism responsible for production of such a strong electric field is unknown. Analysis of nongyrotropic VDFs associated with the gyroloss effect near solid surfaces can promote a better understanding of the near-surface plasma environment and of plasma-solid-surface interactions. © 2012. American Geophysical Union.

At ∼25 km altitude over magnetic anomalies on the Moon, the deceleration of the solar wind ions, acceleration of the solar wind electrons parallel to the magnetic field, and heating of the ions reflected by magnetic anomalies were simultaneously observed by MAP-PACE on Kaguya. Deceleration of the solar wind ions was observed for two major solar wind ion compositions: protons and alpha particles. Deceleration of the solar wind had the same ΔE/q (ΔE: deceleration energy, q: charge) for both protons and alpha particles. In addition, the acceleration energy of the electrons was almost the same as the deceleration energy of the ions. This indicates the existence of an anti-moonward electric field over the magnetic anomaly above the altitude of Kaguya. The reflected ions were observed in a much larger area than the area where magnetic field enhancement was observed. These reflected ions had a higher temperature and lower bulk velocity than the incident solar wind ions. This suggests the existence of a non-adiabatic dissipative interaction between solar wind ions and lunar magnetic anomalies below Kaguya. Copyright © The Society of Geomagnetism and Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences (SGEPSS).

Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (KHI) is a fundamental fluid dynamical process that develops in a velocity shear layer. It is excited on the tail-flanks of the Earth's magnetosphere where the flowing magnetosheath plasma and the stagnant magnetospheric plasma sit adjacent to each other. This instability is thought to induce vortical structures and play an important role in plasma transport there. While KHI vortices have been detected, the earlier observations were performed only on one flank at a time and questions related to dawn-dusk asymmetry were not addressed. Here, we report a case where KHI vortices grow more or less simultaneously and symmetrically on both flanks, despite all the factors that may have broken the symmetry. Yet, energy distributions of ions in and around the vortices show a remarkable dawn-dusk asymmetry. Our results thus suggest that although the initiation and development of the KHI depend primarily on the macroscopic properties of the flow, the observed enhancement of ion energy transport around the dawn side vortices may be linked to microphysical processes including wave-particle interactions. Possible coupling between macro- and micro-scales, if it is at work, suggests a role for KHI not only within the Earth's magnetosphere (e.g., magnetopause and geomagnetic tail) but also in other regions where shear flows of magnetized plasma play important roles. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Large amplitude, monochromatic ultra low frequency (ULF) waves were detected by MAP/LMAG magnetometer onboard Kaguya during the period from 1 January 2008 to 30 November 2008 on its orbit 100 km above the lunar surface. The dominant frequency was 8.3 × 10-3-1.0 × 10 -2 Hz, corresponding to the periods of 120 s-100 s. The amplitude was as large as 3 nT. They were observed in 10% of the time when the moon was in the solar wind far upstream of the Earth&#039;s bow shock. They were detected only by Kaguya on the orbit around the moon, but not by ACE in the upstream solar wind. The occurrence rate was high above the terminator and on the dayside surface. The direction of the propagation was not exactly parallel to the interplanetary magnetic field, but showed a preference to the direction of the magnetic field and the direction perpendicular to the surface of the moon below the spacecraft. The sense of rotation of the magnetic field was left-handed with respect to the magnetic field in 53% of the events, while 47% showed right-handed polarization. The possible generation mechanism is the cyclotron resonance of the magnetohydrodynamic waves with the solar wind protons reflected by the moon. The energy of the reflected protons can account for the energy of the ULF waves. The propagation direction which are not parallel to the incident solar wind flow can explain the observed frequency and the nearly equal percentages of the left-handed and right-handed polarizations. Copyright 2012 by the American Geophysical Union.

Because the solar wind (SW) flow is usually super-sonic, a fast-mode bow shock (BS) is formed in front of the Earth&apos;s magnetosphere, and the Moon crosses the BS at both dusk and dawn flanks. On the other hand, behind of the Moon along the SW flow forms a tenuous region called lunar wake, where the flow can be sub-Alfvenic (and thus sub-sonic) because of its low-density status. Here we report, with joint measurement by Chang&apos;E-1 and SELENE, that the Earth&apos;s BS surface is drastically deformed in the lunar wake. Despite the quasi-perpendicular shock configuration encountered at dusk flank under the Parker-spiral magnetic field, no clear shock surface can be found in the lunar wake, while instead gradual transition of the magnetic field from the upstream to downstream value was observed for a several-minute interval. This finding suggests that the &apos;magnetic ramp&apos; is highly broadened in the wake where a fast-mode shock is no longer maintained due to the highly reduced density. On the other hand, observations at the 100 km altitude on the dayside show that the fast-mode shock is maintained even when the width of the downstream region is smaller than a typical scale length of a perpendicular shock. Our results suggest that the Moon is not so large to eliminate the BS at 100 km altitude on the dayside, while the magnetic field associated with the shock structure is drastically affected in the lunar wake. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Analysis of the data obtained by SELENE (Kaguya) revealed a partial loss in the electron velocity distribution function due to the "gyro-loss effect", namely gyrating electrons being absorbed by the lunar surface. The Moon enters the Earth&apos;s magnetosphere for a few days around full moon, where plasma conditions are significantly different from those in the solar wind. When the magnetic field is locally parallel to the lunar surface, relatively high-energy electrons in the terrestrial plasma sheet with Larmor radii greater than SELENE&apos;s orbital height strike the lunar surface and are absorbed before they can be detected. This phenomenon can be observed as an empty region in the electron distribution function, which is initially isotropic in the plasma sheet, resulting in a non-gyrotropic distribution. We observed the expected characteristic electron distributions, as well as an empty region that was consistent with the presence of a relatively strong electric field (similar to 10 mV/m) around the Moon when it is in the plasma sheet. Citation: Harada, Y., et al. (2010), Interaction between terrestrial plasma sheet electrons and the lunar surface: SELENE (Kaguya) observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L19202, doi:10.1029/2010GL044574.

We present observations of electrostatic solitary waves (ESWs) near the Moon by SELENE (KAGUYA) in the solar wind and in the lunar wake. SELENE is a lunar orbiter with an altitude of 100 km and measured wave electric field, background magnetic field, and fluxes of ions and electrons, etc. ESWs are categorized into three types depending on different regions of observations: ESWs generated by electrons reflected and accelerated by an electric field in the wake boundary (Type A), strong ESWs generated by bi-streaming electrons mirror-reflected over the magnetic anomaly (Type B), and ESWs generated by reflected electrons when the local magnetic field is connected to the lunar surface (Type C). ESWs of Type C often alternate with Langmuir waves. Citation: Hashimoto, K., et al. (2010), Electrostatic solitary waves associated with magnetic anomalies and wake boundary of the Moon observed by KAGUYA, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L19204, doi:10.1029/2010GL044529.

MAP-PACE (MAgnetic field and Plasma experiment-Plasma energy Angle and Composition Experiment) on SELENE (Kaguya) has completed its similar to 1.5-year observation of low-energy charged particles around the Moon. MAP-PACE consists of 4 sensors: ESA (Electron Spectrum Analyzer)-S1, ESA-S2, IMA (Ion Mass Analyzer), and IEA (Ion Energy Analyzer). ESA-S1 and S2 measured the distribution function of low-energy electrons in the energy range 6 eV-9 keV and 9 eV-16 keV, respectively. IMA and IEA measured the distribution function of low-energy ions in the energy ranges 7 eV/q-28 keV/q and 7 eV/q-29 keV/q. All the sensors performed quite well as expected from the laboratory experiment carried out before launch. Since each sensor has a hemispherical field of view, two electron sensors and two ion sensors installed on the spacecraft panels opposite each other could cover the full 3-dimensional phase space of low-energy electrons and ions. One of the ion sensors IMA is an energy mass spectrometer. IMA measured mass-specific ion energy spectra that have never before been obtained at a 100 km altitude polar orbit around the Moon. The newly observed data show characteristic ion populations around the Moon. Besides the solar wind, MAP-PACE-IMA found four clearly distinguishable ion populations on the day-side of the Moon: (1) Solar wind protons backscattered at the lunar surface, (2) Solar wind protons reflected by magnetic anomalies on the lunar surface, (3) Reflected/backscattered protons picked-up by the solar wind, and (4) Ions originating from the lunar surface/lunar exosphere.

We study effect of the solar wind (SW) proton entry deep into the near-Moon wake that was recently discovered by the SELENE mission. Because previous lunar-wake models are based on electron dominance, no effect of SW proton entry has been taken into account. We show that the type-II entry of SW protons forms proton-governed region (PGR) to drastically change the electromagnetic environment of the lunar wake. Broadband electrostatic noise found in the PGR is manifestation of electron two-stream instability, which is attributed to the counter-streaming electrons attracted from the ambient SW to maintain the quasi neutrality. Acceleration of the absorbed electrons up to similar to 1 keV means a superabundance of positive charges of 10(-5)-10(-7) cm(-3) in the near-Moon wake, which should be immediately canceled out by the incoming high-speed electrons. This is a general phenomenon in the lunar wake, because PGR does not necessarily require peculiar SW conditions for its formation. Citation: Nishino, M. N., et al. (2010), Effect of the solar wind proton entry into the deepest lunar wake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L12106, doi: 10.1029/2010GL043948.

In contrast to many ground-based optical observations of the thin lunar alkali exosphere, in situ observations of the exospheric ions by satellite-borne plasma instruments have been quite rare. MAP-PACE-IMA onboard Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE (KAGUYA) succeeded in detecting Moon originating ions at 100 km altitude. Here we make the first report of the ion detection during intervals when the Moon was embedded in the Earth&apos;s magnetotail lobe. In the absence of plasma effects on the source process, ion species of H(+), He(++), He(+), C(+), O(+), Na(+), K(+) and Ar(+) are definitively identified. The ion fluxes were higher when the solar zenith angle was smaller, which is consistent with the idea that the solar photon driven processes dominates in supplying exospheric components. Citation: Tanaka, T., et al. (2009), First in situ observation of the Moon-originating ions in the Earth&apos;s Magnetosphere by MAP-PACE on SELENE (KAGUYA), Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L22106, doi: 10.1029/2009GL040682.

We study solar wind (SW) entry deep into the near-Moon wake using SELENE (KAGUYA) data. It has been known that SW protons flowing around the Moon access the central region of the distant lunar wake, while their intrusion deep into the near-Moon wake has never been expected. We show that SW protons sneak into the deepest lunar wake (anti-subsolar region at similar to 100 km altitude), and that the entry yields strong asymmetry of the near-Moon wake environment. Particle trajectory calculations demonstrate that these SW protons are once scattered at the lunar dayside surface, picked-up by the SW motional electric field, and finally sneak into the deepest wake. Our results mean that the SW protons scattered at the lunar dayside surface and coming into the night side region are crucial for plasma environment in the wake, suggesting absorption of ambient SW electrons into the wake to maintain quasi-neutrality. Citation: Nishino, M. N., et al. (2009), Solar-wind proton access deep into the near-Moon wake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L16103, doi:10.1029/2009GL039444.

The Moon has no global intrinsic magnetic field and only has a very thin atmosphere. Ion measurements made from lunar orbit provide us with information regarding interactions between the solar wind and planetary surface, the surface composition through secondary ion mass spectrometry and the source and loss mechanisms of planetary tenuous atmosphere. An ion energy mass spectrometer MAP-PACE IMA onboard a lunar orbiter SELENE (KAGUYA) has detected low-energy ions at 100-km altitude. The MAP-PACE measurements have elucidated that the ions originate from the lunar surface and exosphere and that the ions are at least composed of He(+), C(+), O(+), Na(+) and K(+). Following the discovery of the lunar Na and K exospheres by the ground-based observation, MAP-PACE IMA have found the He, C and O exospheres around the Moon. Citation: Yokota, S., et al. (2009), First direct detection of ions originating from the Moon by MAP-PACE IMA onboard SELENE (KAGUYA), Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L11201, doi:10.1029/2009GL038185.

We study solar wind (SW) intrusion into the near-Moon wake using SELENE (KAGUYA) data. It has been known that SW protons are gradually accelerated toward the wake center along magnetic field in the distant lunar wake, while SW intrusion into the near-Moon wake has never been measured. We show that the SW protons come into the lunar wake at similar to 100 km altitude in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field, as they gain kinetic energy in one hemisphere while lose in the other hemisphere. Particle trajectory calculations and theoretical treatment demonstrate that proton Larmor motions and inward electric field around the wake boundary result in energy gain and loss of the SW protons. Our result shows emergence of proton particle dynamics around the near-Moon space, and suggests that the SW protons may relatively easily access the low-latitude and low-altitude region on the lunar night side. Citation: Nishino, M. N., et al. (2009), Pairwise energy gain-loss feature of solar wind protons in the near-Moon wake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L12108, doi: 10.1029/2009GL039049.

MAP-PACE (MAgnetic field and Plasma experiment - Plasma energy Angle and Composition Experiment) is one of the scientific instruments onboard the KAGUYA (SELENE) satellite. PACE consists of 4 sensors: ESA (Electron Spectrum Analyzer)-S1, ESA-S2, IMA (Ion Mass Analyzer), and IEA (Ion Energy Analyzer). ESA-S1 and S2 measure the distribution function of low energy electrons below 15keV, while IMA and IEA measure the distribution function of mass identified low energy ions below 28keV/q. Since KAGUYA is a three-axis stabilized spacecraft, a pair of electron sensors (ESA-S1 and S2) and a pair of ion sensors (IMA and IEA) are necessary for obtaining three-dimensional distribution function of electrons and ions. Low energy ion measurements on the lunar orbit have been realized more than 30 years after the Apollo period. In addition, nobody has ever measured the mass identified three-dimensional distribution function of low energy ions at 100km altitude. PACE discovered surprisingly active low energy ion environment around the Moon. Instead of being absorbed by the lunar surface, quite a large amount of solar wind ions are reflected back from the Moon. The reflected solar wind ions are accelerated above solar wind energy picked up by the electric field in the solar wind.