坂谷 尚哉

Various natural effects gradually alter the surfaces of asteroids exposed to the space environment. These processes are collectively known as space weathering. The influence of space weathering on the observed spectra of C-complex asteroids remains uncertain. This has long hindered our understanding of their composition and evolution through ground-based telescope observations. Proximity observations of (162173) Ryugu by the telescopic Optical Navigation Camera (ONC-T) onboard Hayabusa2 and that of (101955) Bennu by MapCam onboard Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) found opposite spectral trends of space weathering; Ryugu darkened and reddened while Bennu brightened and blued. How the spectra of Ryugu and Bennu evolved relative to each other would place an important constraint for understanding their mutual relationship and differences in their origins and evolutions. In this study, we compared the space weathering trends on Ryugu and Bennu by applying the results of cross calibration between ONC-T and MapCam obtained in our companion paper. We show that the average Bennu surface is brighter by 18.0 ± 1.5% at v band (550 nm) and bluer by 0.18 ± 0.03 μm−1 (in the 480–850 nm spectral slope) than Ryugu. The spectral slopes of surface materials are more uniform on Bennu than on Ryugu at spatial scales larger than ∼1 m, but Bennu is more heterogeneous at scales below ∼1 m. This suggests that lateral mixing of surface materials due to resurfacing processes may have been more efficient on Bennu. The reflectance−spectral slope distributions of craters on Ryugu and Bennu appeared to follow two parallel trend lines with an offset before cross calibration, but they converged to a single straight trend without a bend after cross calibration. We show that the spectra of the freshest craters on Ryugu and Bennu are indistinguishable within the uncertainty of cross calibration. These results suggest that Ryugu and Bennu initially had similar spectra before space weathering and that they evolved in completely opposite directions along the same trend line, subsequently evolving into asteroids with different disk-averaged spectra. These findings further suggest that space weathering likely expanded the spectral slope variation of C-complex asteroids, implying that they may have formed from materials with more uniform spectral slopes.

++ 1. IntroductionThe Hayabusa2 spacecraft is currently cruising through deep space for the extended mission Hayabusa2#. The spacecraft is scheduled to flyby asteroid 2002 CC21 in 2026 and rendezvous with asteroid 1998 KY26 in 2031. Hayabusa2's VIS cameras include the ONC-T (Onborad Navigation Camera - Telescopic) and the wide-angle ONC-W1 and ONC-W2 (Figure 1). ONC-T, with its high sensitivity and multi-band observation capability, is the primary scientific instrument [1]. During the long cruise, ecliptic light observations [2] and exoplanet observations [3] continue as ONC-T observations. On the other hand, we are exploring ways to further utilize ONC cameras during the cruisng phase, and in this study, we examine how to utilize ONC-W2 and plan to process the data. Figure 1. Schematic view of the configuration of ONC-T, W1, and W2 (after [4]). Blue line indicates the solar array paddle.++ 2. Characteristics of ONC-W2The disadvantages and advantages of using the ONC-W2 for distant objects are as follows.[Disadvantages] Low sensitivity and stray light- The sensitivity of the ONC-W2 is not sufficient to observe distant objects because it is designed to observe the surface of an asteroid with disk-resolved situation.- The stray light from the multi-layer insulation at the edge of ONC-W2's FOV is very large for long exposure observation.[Advantage] Wide range of observable direction- The ONC-W2 camera can observe a wide area, whereas the ONC-T camera can only point in a narrow directions due to the limitations of the solar array paddle. Since the W2 camera faces the side of the solar array paddle (in the +Z direction of the spacecraft), it can cover 48% of the entire sky by turning the spacecraft attitude around the +Z axis and pointing the camera in different directions without losing power.Due to its low sensitivity but wide field of view, W2 could be used, for example, to continuously observe bright new comets for several days or weeks. The most recent such possibility is the comet C/2023 A3 (Tsuchinshan-ATLAS). An example about the estimation of observable period is shown in Section 4.++ 3. Preparation of data processing methodsNew ONC-W2 applications will require additional tools different from those for Ryugu images. We are working on a list of necessary data processing methods and calibration tasks.+ Stray lightPrevious calibration studies have shown that the presence or absence of stray light in W2 depends on the attitude of the spacecraft [5]. When stray light does occur, the degree of stray light is significant (Figure 2). The primary countermeasure is to adopt an attitude that minimizes stray light, but it is also necessary to develop image processing methods to remove stray light. Figure 2. An example of ONC-W2 long exposure (44.6s) image with stray light. White dots are mainly hot pixels.+ Sensitivity checkThe sensitivity of ONC-W2 prior to Ryugu arrival has been confirmed by [5]. However, because of sensitivity changes due to the Ryugu touchdown and changes over time, it is necessary to confirm the current sensitivity. As a quick check tool, we have prepared a method to estimate the sensitivity statistically from multiple stars. Figure 3 below plots the relationship between the stars V mag and integrated DN from 43 frames observed in 2016, with stray light removed. These stars include variable stars, but the effect is expected to be smaller by using a large number of stars.  Figure 3. Relationship between the stars Vmag and integrated intensity (DN) of long exposure (44.6s) images.++ 4. Observation opportunitiesWe are also considering the preparation of methods and tools for narrowing down suitable observation opportunities for ONC-W2. The following is the case study of comet C/2023 A3.Figure 4 shows the timing of the comet's entry into the FOV of ONC-W2. The orbit of the comet was obtained from JPL Horizons Sytem [6]. In this figure, the entire space as seen from the spacecraft is projected in a simple cylindrical projection. The spacecraft is oriented with the solar array paddle (+Z) pointing toward the sun and the W2 camera side toward the lower ecliptic plane. The red dots are the direction of the comet calculated every other day. The comet was found to cross the FOV from August 20 to August 28, 2024. Further observation will be possible by changing the attitude of the spacecraft. Figure 5 shows the total magnitude of Comet C/2023 A3 as expected from the position of Hayabusa2, which is expected to be 2-3 magnitude at the end of August, bright enough to be observed by ONC-W2. At this time, the Earth is on the opposite side of the Sun, making it difficult to observe this comet. Therefore, observation of this comet by a spacecraft would be highly valuable as data. We plan to conduct an observational test with ONC-W2 during this period. We will present a preliminary report  in this presentation. Figure 4: Calculated timing of comet crossing in ONC-W2 field of view. Figure 5. Predicted total magnitude of Comet C/2023 A3 from the position of Hayabusa2.++6. ConclusionWe examine how to utilize Hayabusa2 ONC-W2 camera in the cruising phase. Due to its low sensitivity but wide field of view, ONC-W2 could be used to continuously observe bright new comets for several days or weeks. We plan to conduct an observational test of the the comet C/2023 A3 in August. We will present a preliminary report  in this presentation.++ Acknowledgement: We thank the Haybusa2# systems and science teams for discussing the feasibility of the operation.++ References: [1] Sugita et al. (2019) Science 364, eaaw0422. doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw0422 [2] Tsumura et al. (2023) Earth Planets Space 75, 121. doi.org/10.1186/s40623-023-01856-x [3] Yumoto et al. (2024) 55th LPSC, Abstract 1774.  [4] Kouyama et al. (2021) Icarus 360, 114353. doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114353  [5] Tatsumi et al. (2019) Icarus 325,153-195. doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2019.01.015 [6] NASA JPL Horizons System. https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons/app.html#/

Abstract Here we describe the novel, multi-point Comet Interceptor mission. It is dedicated to the exploration of a little-processed long-period comet, possibly entering the inner Solar System for the first time, or to encounter an interstellar object originating at another star. The objectives of the mission are to address the following questions: What are the surface composition, shape, morphology, and structure of the target object? What is the composition of the gas and dust in the coma, its connection to the nucleus, and the nature of its interaction with the solar wind? The mission was proposed to the European Space Agency in 2018, and formally adopted by the agency in June 2022, for launch in 2029 together with the Ariel mission. Comet Interceptor will take advantage of the opportunity presented by ESA’s F-Class call for fast, flexible, low-cost missions to which it was proposed. The call required a launch to a halo orbit around the Sun-Earth L2 point. The mission can take advantage of this placement to wait for the discovery of a suitable comet reachable with its minimum $\varDelta $V capability of $600\text{ ms}^{-1}$. Comet Interceptor will be unique in encountering and studying, at a nominal closest approach distance of 1000 km, a comet that represents a near-pristine sample of material from the formation of the Solar System. It will also add a capability that no previous cometary mission has had, which is to deploy two sub-probes – B1, provided by the Japanese space agency, JAXA, and B2 – that will follow different trajectories through the coma. While the main probe passes at a nominal 1000 km distance, probes B1 and B2 will follow different chords through the coma at distances of 850 km and 400 km, respectively. The result will be unique, simultaneous, spatially resolved information of the 3-dimensional properties of the target comet and its interaction with the space environment. We present the mission’s science background leading to these objectives, as well as an overview of the scientific instruments, mission design, and schedule.

Abstract Returned samples from Cb-type asteroid (162173) Ryugu exhibit very dark spectra in visible and near-infrared ranges, generally consistent with the Hayabusa2 observations. A critical difference is that a structural water absorption of hydrous silicates is around twice as deep in the returned samples compared with those of Ryugu’s surface, suggesting Ryugu surface is more dehydrated. Here we use laboratory experiments data to indicate the spectral differences between returned samples and asteroid surface are best explained if Ryugu surface has (1) higher porosity, (2) larger particle size, and (3) more space-weathered condition, with the last being the most effective. On Ryugu, space weathering by micrometeoroid bombardments promoting dehydration seem to be more effective than that by solar-wind implantation. Extremely homogeneous spectra of the Ryugu’s global surface is in contrast with the heterogeneous S-type asteroid (25143) Itokawa’s spectra, which suggests space weathering has proceeded more rapidly on Cb-type asteroids than S-type asteroids.

The thermophysical properties of small Solar System bodies are essential to be determined, on which the thermal evolution of small bodies largely depends. The carbonaceous asteroid Ryugu is one of the small undifferentiated bodies formed in the early Solar System. Hayabusa2 explored the asteroid Ryugu and returned the surface samples in 2020 for detailed on-ground investigation, including measurements of thermal properties. Because the available sample amount was limited, this study developed a novel method to measure the thermal diffusivity of small and irregularly shaped samples of about 1 mm in diameter by combining lock-in thermography and periodic heating methods on the microscale. This method enables us to measure the thermal diffusivity of both flat-plate and granular shape samples by selecting the suitable detecting direction of the temperature response. Especially, when the sample has a flat-plate shape, the anisotropic distribution of the in-plane thermal diffusivity can be evaluated. This method was applied to six Ryugu samples, and the detailed anisotropic distribution of the thermal diffusivity was obtained. The measurement results showed that the samples show local thermal anisotropy caused by cracks and voids. The average thermal diffusivity among all samples was (2.8 to 5.8) × 10−7 m2·s. Based on the density and specific heat of the samples obtained independently, the thermal effusivity was estimated to be 791 J·(s1/2·m2·K) to 1253 J·(s1/2·m2·K), which is defined as the resistance of surface temperature to the change of thermal input. The determined thermal effusivity, often called thermal inertia in planetary science, is larger than the observed value of 225 ± 45 J· (s1/2·m2·K) of the asteroid Ryugu's surface, obtained from the diurnal temperature change of the rotating asteroid by a thermal infrared camera onboard Hayabuas2. This difference is likely to be attributed to the difference in the analytical scale between the sample and the surface boulders compared with the thermal diffusion length. Consequently, it was found that the present result is more representative of the thermal diffusivity and thermal inertia of local part of individual Ryugu particles.

The zodiacal light (ZL) is sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust (IPD) in the optical wavelengths. The spatial distribution of IPD in the Solar system may hold an important key to understanding the evolution of the Solar system and material transportation within it. The IPD number density can be expressed as n(r)∼r^{−α}, and the result of α∼1.3 was obtained by the previous observations from the interplanetary space by Helios 1/2 and Pioneer 10/11 in the 1970s and 1980s. However, no direct measurements of α based on the ZL observation from the interplanetary space outside the Earth's orbit have been conducted since then. Here we introduce the initial result of the ZL radial profile at optical wavelengths observed at 0.76-1.06 au by ONC-T with Hayabusa2# mission in 2021-2022. The obtained ZL brightness is well reproduced by the model brightness, but there is a small excess of the observed ZL brightness over the model brightness at around 0.9 au. The obtained radial power-law index is α=1.30±0.08, which is consistent with the previous results based on the ZL observations. The dominant uncertainty source in α arises from the uncertainty in the Diffuse Galactic Light estimation.

After delivering its sample capsule to Earth, the Hayabusa2 spacecraft started its extended mission to perform a flyby of asteroid 2001 CC21 in 2026 and rendezvous with asteroid 1998 KY26 in 2031. During the extended mission, the optical navigation camera (ONC) of Hayabusa2 will play an important role in navigation and science observations, but it has suffered from optical deterioration after the spacecraft's surface contact with and sampling of asteroid Ryugu. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the telescopic camera (ONC-T) has continued to decrease for more than a year, posing a serious problem for the extended mission. These are problems that could potentially be encountered by other sample-return missions involving surface contact. In this study, we evaluated the long-term variation of ONC performance over the 6.5 years following the launch in 2014 to predict how it will perform during observations of the two target asteroids in its extended mission (6 and 11 years from the Earth return, respectively). Our results showed several important long-term trends in ONC performance, such as transmission, dark noise level, and hot pixels. During the long cruising period of the extended mission, we plan to observe both zodiacal light and exoplanet transits as additional science targets. The accuracy of these observations is sensitive to background noise level and stray-light contamination, so we conducted new test observations to search for the lowest stray light, which has been found to depend on spacecraft attitude. The results of these analyses and new test observations suggest that the Hayabusa2 ONC will be able to conduct cruising, flyby, and rendezvous observations of asteroids with sufficient accuracy.

Carbonaceous meteorites are thought to be fragments of C-type (carbonaceous) asteroids. Samples of the C-type asteroid (162173) Ryugu were retrieved by the Hayabusa2 spacecraft. We measured the mineralogy and bulk chemical and isotopic compositions of Ryugu samples. The samples are mainly composed of materials similar to those of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, particularly the CI (Ivuna-type) group. The samples consist predominantly of minerals formed in aqueous fluid on a parent planetesimal. The primary minerals were altered by fluids at a temperature of 37 degrees +/- 10 degrees C, about 5.2(-0.7)(+0.8) million (statistical) or 5.2(-2.1)(+1.6) million (systematic) years after the formation of the first solids in the Solar System. After aqueous alteration, the Ryugu samples were likely never heated above similar to 100 degrees C. The samples have a chemical composition that more closely resembles that of the Sun's photosphere than other natural samples do.

Abstract Japanese Hayabusa2 spacecraft has successfully carried out an impact experiment using a small carry-on impactor (SCI) on an asteroid (162173) Ryugu. We examine the size distribution of particles inside and outside an artificial impact crater (the SCI crater) based on the images taken by the optical navigation camera onboard the Hayabusa2 spacecraft. The circumferential variation in particle size distribution inside the SCI crater is recognized and we interpret that major circumferential variation is caused by the large boulders inside the SCI crater that existed prior to the impact. The size distribution inside the SCI crater also shows that the subsurface layer beneath the SCI impact site had a large number of particles with a characteristic size of – 9 cm, which is consistent with the previous evaluations. On the other hand, the size distribution outside the SCI crater exhibits the radial variation, implying that the deposition of ejecta from the SCI crater is involved. The slope of the size distribution outside the crater at small sizes differs from the slope of the size distribution on the surface of Ryugu by approximately 1 or slightly less. This is consistent with the claim that some particles are buried in fine particles of the subsurface origin included in ejecta from the SCI crater. Thus, the particle size distributions inside and outside the SCI crater reveal that the subsurface layer beneath the SCI impact site is rich in fine particles with – 9 cm in size while the particles on the surface have a size distribution of a power-law form with shallower slopes at small sizes due to the deposition of fine ejecta from the subsurface layer. Finally, we discuss a process responsible for this difference in particle size distribution between the surface and the subsurface layers. The occurrence of segregation in the gravitational flow of particles on the surface of Ryugu is plausible. Graphical Abstract

Context. After landing on C-type asteroid Ryugu, MASCOT imaged brightly colored, submillimeter-sized inclusions in a small rock. Hayabusa2 successfully returned a sample of small particles from the surface of Ryugu, but none of these appear to harbor such inclusions. The samples are considered representative of Ryugu. Aims. To understand the apparent discrepancy between MASCOT observations and Ryugu samples, we assess whether the MASCOT landing site, and the rock by implication, is perhaps atypical for Ryugu. Methods. We analyzed observations of the MASCOT landing area acquired by three instruments on board Hayabusa2: a camera (ONC), a near-infrared spectrometer (NIRS3), and a thermal infrared imager. We compared the landing area properties thus retrieved with those of the average Ryugu surface. Results. We selected several areas and landforms in the landing area for analysis: a small crater, a collection of smooth rocks, and the landing site itself. The crater is relatively blue and the rocks are relatively red. The spectral and thermophysical properties of the landing site are very close to those of the average Ryugu surface. The spectral properties of the MASCOT rock are probably close to average, but its thermal inertia may be somewhat higher. Conclusions. The MASCOT rock can also be considered representative of Ryugu. Some of the submillimeter-sized particles in the returned samples stand out because of their atypical spectral properties. Such particles may be present as inclusions in the MASCOT rock.

Hayabusa2 took on the challenge of collecting fresh subsurface samples from asteroid (162173) Ryugu during its second touchdown operation. For this ambitious goal, the spacecraft conducted artificial cratering by using a small carry-on impactor (SCI), leading to the exposure of subsurface materials. The key to mission success lies in the target site selection for the SCI and landing operations, which is the focus of this paper. On the one hand, the science goal of collecting subsurface materials required us to land on one of the areas with a large amount of impact ejecta excavated by SCI, where boulder abundance is not necessarily low. On the other hand, spacecraft safety demanded that we avoid landing on hazardous areas with large boulders. These two conditions often conflicted with each other. In order to resolve this dilemma, we developed a scheme to select a target site that secures the chance of retrieving a significant amount of subsurface samples without posing serious safety risks. Although the basic selection scheme was similar to that for the first touchdown, the second landing site selection involved additional analyses of artificial cratering and subsurface sampling. Consequently, the site selection campaign, including various types of spacecraft operations, contributed to the successful retrieval of Ryugu samples, which presumably contain materials excavated from subsurface layers. The present study provides the framework to access internal asteroid materials, pushing the envelope of space exploration.

It is important to know the thermophysical properties (thermal diffusivity, specific heat, etc.) for meteorites and small samples from asteroids to understand the thermal history of the solar system origin. However, there is no research on thermophysical properties measurement with a non-destructive and non-contact method for small and/or irregularly shaped samples such as meteorites or asteroid particles. In this study, a new method to measure in-plane and out-of-plane thermal diffusivities of flat-plate shape and granular shape samples by using lock-in thermography is developed. This method enables the ability to measure the thermal diffusivity of both flat-plate and granular shape samples by selecting the suitable detecting direction of the temperature response. In this paper, the thermal diffusivity of five kinds of meteorites samples made of two types of CM2 chondrites (Murray and Murchison) were evaluated. As a result, the detailed angular distribution of the in-plane thermal diffusivity and the out-of-plane thermal diffusivity was revealed. The measurement results showed that there is local thermal anisotropy caused by the heterogeneity in the composition of the chondrules and matrix. The results also showed that the high compositional content ratio of chondrules leads to a high average value of thermal diffusivity. The range of the obtained thermal diffusivity was 0.24-0.78 mm(2)center dot s(-1), and this result showed good agreement with the reported value by the conventional method consisted of pulsed heating method with sample destruction and processing.

Over a broad size range, the shapes of impact fragments from catastrophic disruptions are distributed around the mean axial ratio 2: root 2: 1, irrespective of experimental conditions and target materials. Although most blocks on asteroids are likely to be impact fragments, there is not enough quantitative data for reliable statistics on their three-axial lengths and/or ratios because it is difficult to precisely estimate the heights of the blocks. In this study, we evaluate the heights of blocks on asteroid Ryugu by measuring their shadows. The three-axial ratios of similar to 4100 small blocks with diameters from 5.0 cm to 7.6 m in Ryugu's equatorial region are investigated using eight close-up images of narrower localities taken at altitudes below 500 m, i.e. at < 5.4 cm/pixel resolution, obtained immediately before the second touch-down of the Hayabusa2 spacecraft. The purpose of this study is to investigate the block shape distribution, which is important for understanding the geological history of asteroid Ryugu. Specifically, the shape distribution is compared to laboratory impact fragments. Our observations indicate that the shape distributions of blocks smaller than 1 m on Ryugu are consistent with laboratory impact fragment shape distributions, implying that the dominant shape-determining process for blocks on Ryugu was impact fragmentation. Blocks several meters in size in the equatorial region seem to be slightly flatter than the rest, suggesting that some blocks are partly buried in a bed of regolith. In conclusion, the shape distributions of blocks from several-cm to several-m in the equatorial region of asteroid Ryugu suggest that these are mainly fragments originating from the catastrophic disruption of their parent body and/or from a later impact.

We present a numerical method for simulating a disk-resolved thermal image of an asteroid with small-scale roughness. In our method, we carry out numerical thermal evolution model of a small but rough area taking into account its latitude, shadowing effect, and re-absorption of the thermal radiation by neighbor. By visualization of the resulting temperature distribution for an observation direction, we obtain the thermal flux from the area as a function of the observation direction. Then thermal image of an asteroid with random topography is constructed. The resulting daytime temperature evolution profile is different from the well-known parabolic shape due to the surface roughness, implying that the daytime temperature evolution profile is a diagnostic to evaluate the surface roughness. Although this model is inapplicable to a morphologically complex asteroid such as Itokawa, the target body of Hayabusa2, Ryugu is generally convex and suitable for application of our model. Furthermore, the study presents predictions of the location shift of Ryugu trajectory after one orbital rotation due to the thermal moment caused by the rebound force from thermally emitted photons known as the Yarkovsky effect. This model is thus verifiable by precise calculation of the ephemeris of Ryugu.

Presented here are the observations and interpretations from a comprehensive analysis of 16 representative particles returned from the C-type asteroid Ryugu by the Hayabusa2 mission. On average Ryugu particles consist of 50% phyllosilicate matrix, 41% porosity and 9% minor phases, including organic matter. The abundances of 70 elements from the particles are in close agreement with those of CI chondrites. Bulk Ryugu particles show higher delta O-18, Delta O-17, and epsilon Cr-54 values than CI chondrites. As such, Ryugu sampled the most primitive and least-thermally processed protosolar nebula reservoirs. Such a finding is consistent with multi-scale H-C-N isotopic compositions that are compatible with an origin for Ryugu organic matter within both the protosolar nebula and the interstellar medium. The analytical data obtained here, suggests that complex soluble organic matter formed during aqueous alteration on the Ryugu progenitor planetesimal (several 10's of km), <2.6 Myr after CAI formation. Subsequently, the Ryugu progenitor planetesimal was fragmented and evolved into the current asteroid Ryugu through sublimation.

The thermal conductivity of granular planetary regolith is strongly dependent on the porosity, or packing density, of the regolith particles. However, existing models for regolith thermal conductivity predict different dependencies on porosity. Here, we use a full-field model of planetary regolith to study the relationship between regolith radiative thermal conductivity, porosity, and the particle non-isothermality. The model approximates regolith as regular and random packings of spherical particles in a 3D finite element mesh framework. Our model results, which are in good agreement with previous numerical and experimental datasets, show that random packings have a consistently higher radiative thermal conductivity than ordered packings. From our random packing results, we present a new empirical model relating regolith thermal conductivity, porosity, temperature, particle size, and the thermal conductivity of individual particles. This model shows that regolith particle size predictions from thermal inertia are largely independent of assumptions of regolith porosity, except for when the non-isothermality effect is large, as is the case when the regolith is particularly coarse and/or is composed of low thermal conductivity material.

The thermal conductivity of planetary soils, or regolith, is essential for understanding the present global thermal state of bodies. The thermal conductivity of lunar soils is important with respect to lunar crustal heat flow. Although in situ measurements were performed by the Apollo 15 and 17 missions, laboratory measurements of the returned lunar samples have not reproduced the estimated subsurface values. Since the amount of extraterrestrial soil samples is limited, a small apparatus is needed to measure their thermal conductivity. In this study, we developed an apparatus enabling the measurement of the thermal conductivity of a small amount of soil (< 10 g) via the line heat source method as a function of compressional pressure under vacuum conditions. The thermal conductivity of glass beads and lunar regolith simulant derived by the new apparatus is higher than that obtained from the larger line heat source, and then, reliable apparatus. To evaluate the experimental results, we performed numerical simulation of the temperature evolution during the line heat source measurement, and found that the thermal conductivity derived from the simulation data is higher than the input thermal conductivity. This is consistent with the experimental results and is caused by the heat loss through a line heat source with a limited length. The difference depends on the contact conductance between the sample and the line heat source, and the calibration factors for each sample are determined.

C-type asteroids(1) are considered to be primitive small Solar System bodies enriched in water and organics, providing clues to the origin and evolution of the Solar System and the building blocks of life. C-type asteroid 162173 Ryugu has been characterized by remote sensing(2-7) and on-asteroid measurements(8,9) with Hayabusa2 (ref. (10)). However, the ground truth provided by laboratory analysis of returned samples is invaluable to determine the fine properties of asteroids and other planetary bodies. We report preliminary results of analyses on returned samples from Ryugu of the particle size distribution, density and porosity, spectral properties and textural properties, and the results of a search for Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) and chondrules. The bulk sample mainly consists of rugged and smooth particles of millimetre to submillimetre size, confirming that the physical and chemical properties were not altered during the return from the asteroid. The power index of its size distribution is shallower than that of the surface boulder observed on Ryugu(11), indicating differences in the returned Ryugu samples. The average of the estimated bulk densities of Ryugu sample particles is 1,282 +/- 231 kg m(-3), which is lower than that of meteorites(12), suggesting a high microporosity down to the millimetre scale, extending centimetre-scale estimates from thermal measurements(5,9). The extremely dark optical to near-infrared reflectance and spectral profile with weak absorptions at 2.7 and 3.4 mu m imply a carbonaceous composition with indigenous aqueous alteration, matching the global average of Ryugu(3,4) and confirming that the sample is representative of the asteroid. Together with the absence of submillimetre CAIs and chondrules, these features indicate that Ryugu is most similar to CI chondrites but has lower albedo, higher porosity and more fragile characteristics.

<title>Abstract</title>The near-Earth asteroid (162173) Ryugu, the target of Hayabusa2 space mission, was observed via both orbiter and the lander instruments. The infrared radiometer on the MASCOT lander (MARA) is the only instrument providing spectrally resolved mid-infrared (MIR) data, which is crucial for establishing a link between the asteroid material and meteorites found on Earth. Earlier studies revealed that the single boulder investigated by the lander belongs to the most common type found on Ryugu. Here we show the spectral variation of Ryugu’s emissivity using the complete set of in-situ MIR data and compare it to those of various carbonaceous chondritic meteorites, revealing similarities to the most aqueously altered ones, as well as to asteroid (101955) Bennu. The results show that Ryugu experienced strong aqueous alteration prior to any dehydration.

The Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) spacecraft is equipped with two cameras, i.e., the TElescopic Nadir imager for GeOmOrphology (TENGOO) and the Optical Radiometer composed Of CHromatic Imagers (OROCHI), for the scientific observation of the Martian moon Phobos. OROCHI is a wide-angle multiband camera system comprising seven cameras with different bandpass filters and one monochromatic camera in the visible and near-infrared range. Thus, OROCHI can simultaneously obtain multiband images. Previous space observations have revealed that the reflection spectra of Phobos exhibit regional differences, including a red unit and a blue unit with weak redness. Moreover, Phobos shows an absorption band near 650 nm, attributed to the red unit of Phobos. Global observations using OROCHI require the determination of such regional variations with high precision; therefore, we must reduce noise in the optical system design. In this study, to meet this requirement, we focus on stray light reduction. Stray light is a source of noise generated by reflections at surfaces of optical components (e.g., sensors, filters, lenses, and lens barrels). We design simulation models of the OROCHI optical system, measure the reflectance of its charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor, and conduct stray light analysis via ray tracing. We estimate the ratio of the stray light intensity to the target signal intensity by deriving both the reflected (constituting stray light) and unreflected rays. We show that placing the filter away from the sensor and reducing the reflectances of the filter and lenses effectively reduce stray light. Such approaches are incorporated into the preliminary design of OROCHI. (C) 2021 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier B.V.

The JAXA's Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) mission is planned to reveal the origin of Phobos and Deimos. It will remotely observe both moons and return a sample from Phobos. The nominal instruments include the TElescopic Nadir imager for GeOmOrphology (TENGOO) and Optical RadiOmeter composed of CHromatic Imagers (OROCHI). The scientific objective of TENGOO is to obtain the geomorphological features of Phobos and Deimos. The spatial resolution of TENGOO is 0.3 m at an altitude of 25 km in the quasi-satellite orbit. The scientific objective of OROCHI is to obtain material distribution using spectral mapping. OROCHI possesses seven wide-angle bandpass imagers without a filter wheel and one monochromatic imager dedicated to the observation during the landing phase. Using these two instruments, we plan to select landing sites and obtain information that supports the analysis of return samples.

Asteroid 162173 Ryugu is a carbonaceous asteroid that was visited by Japan's Hayabusa2 spacecraft in 2018. The formation mechanism of the "spinning-top" shape of Ryugu is a vital clue to the dynamical history of the near-Earth asteroid. In this study, we address the long-term evolution of its spin state induced by the Yarkovsky-O'Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) effect, that is, the thermal recoil torque that changes the rotation period and spin-pole direction. Given the current orbit, spin state, and three-dimensional shape of Ryugu observed by Hayabusa2, we computed the YORP torque exerted on Ryugu using a simplified thermal model assuming zero thermal conductivity. Despite variations in the meter-scaled topography, all 20 shape models that we examined indicate that the spin velocity of Ryugu is currently decreasing at a rate of (-6.3 to -0.42) x 10(-6) deg/day(2). Our findings also suggest that the thermal torque is responsible for maintaining the spin pole upright with respect to the orbital plane. Therefore, the YORP effect may explain the significant spin-down from an earlier period of 3.5 hr to the present period of 7.6 hr. The corresponding time scale of the spin-down is estimated to be 0.58-8.7 million years, depending on the input shape models. This time scale is comparable to the formation period of the largest crater, Urashima (5-12 Ma), or the western bulge (2-9 Ma) as derived from previous studies on crater statistics in Ryugu. Thus, its rotation may have started to decelerate as a consequence of major resurfacing events.

The Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) mission will study the Martian moons Phobos and Deimos, Mars, and their environments. The mission scenario includes both landing on the surface of Phobos to collect samples and deploying a small rover for in situ observations. Engineering safeties and scientific planning for these operations require appropriate evaluations of the surface environment of Phobos. Thus, the mission team organized the Landing Operation Working Team (LOWT) and Surface Science and Geology Sub-Science Team (SSG-SST), whose view of the Phobos environment is summarized in this paper. While orbital and large-scale characteristics of Phobos are relatively well known, characteristics of the surface regolith, including the particle size-distributions, the packing density, and the mechanical properties, are difficult to constrain. Therefore, we developed several types of simulated soil materials (simulant), such as UTPS-TB (University of Tokyo Phobos Simulant,Tagish Lake based), UTPS-IB (Impact-hypothesis based), and UTPS-S (Simpler version) for engineering and scientific evaluation experiments.

Many small boulders with reflectance values higher than 1.5 times the average reflectance have been found on the near-Earth asteroid 162,173 Ryugu. Based on their visible wavelength spectral differences, Tatsumi et al. (2021, Nature Astronomy, 5, doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1179-z) defined two bright boulder classes: C-type and S- type. These two classifications of bright boulders have different size distributions and spectral trends. In this study, we measured the spectra of 79 bright boulders and investigated their detailed spectral properties. Analyses obtained a number of important results. First, S-type bright boulders on Ryugu have spectra that are similar to those found for two different ordinary chondrites with different initial spectra that have been experimentally space weathered the same way. This suggests that there may be two populations of S-type bright boulders on Ryugu, perhaps originating from two different impactors that hit Ryugu's parent body. Second, the model space-weathering ages of meter-size S-type bright boulders, based on spectral change rates derived in previous experimentally irradiated ordinary chondrites, are 10(6)-10(6) years, which is consistent with the crater retention age (<10(6) years) of the similar to 1-m deep surface layer on Ryugu. This agreement strongly suggests that Ryugu's surface is extremely young, implying that the samples acquired from Ryugu's surface should be fresh. Third, the lack of a serpentine absorption in the S-type clast embedded in one of the large brecciated boulders indicates that fragmentation and cementation that created the breccias occurred after the termination of aqueous alteration. Fourth, C-type bright boulders exhibit a continuous spectral trend similar to the heating track of low-albedo carbonaceous chondrites, such as CM and CI. Other processes, such as space weathering and grain size effects, cannot primarily account for their spectral variation. Furthermore, the distribution of the spectra of general dark boulders, which constitute >99.9% of Ryugu's volume, is located along the trend line in slope/UV-index diagram that is occupied by C-type bright boulders. These results indicate that thermal metamorphism might be the dominant cause for the spectral variety among the C-type bright boulders on Ryugu and that general boulders on Ryugu may have experienced thermal metamorphism under a much narrower range of conditions than the C-type bright boulders. This supports the hypothesis that Ryugu's parent body experienced uniform heating due to radiogenic energy rather than impact heating.

The near-Earth asteroid (162173) Ryugu displays a Cb-type average spectrum and a very low average normal albedo of 0.04. Although the majority of boulders on Ryugu have reflectance spectra and albedo similar to the Ryugu average, a small fraction of boulders exhibit anomalously high albedo and distinctively different spectra. A previous study (Tatsumi et al., 2021Nature Astronomy, 5, doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-1179-z) based on the 2.7-km observations and a series of low-altitude (down to 68 m) descent observations conducted prior to the first touchdown have shown that the spectra of these anomalous boulders can be classified into two distinct groups corresponding to S and C type asteroids. The former originate most likely from an impactor that collided with Ryugu's parent body, whereas the latter may be from portions of Ryugu's parent body that experienced a different temperature history than experienced by the majority of boulder materials. In this study, we analyzed images captured after the first touchdown to determine the quantitative properties of these bright boulders on Ryugu. We measured the sizes of more than a thousand bright boulders and characterized the morphologic properties of the largest ones. Analyses revealed many properties of bright boulders important for the evolution of Ryugu and its parent body. First, the size-frequency distributions of S-type and C-type bright boulders follow a power law with exponents of 1.6 +/- 1.3 and 3.0 +/- 0.7, respectively. Based on these size-frequency distributions, we obtained the ratios of the total volume and surface area of S-type bright boulders to those of average dark boulders on the Ryugu's surface, that is, 7.1(-5.0)(+6.3) x 10(-6) and 1.5(-1.2)(+3.2) x 10(-6), respectively, over the diameter range of 0.3 to 3 m. Similarly, the ratio of the total volume and surface area of C-type bright boulders to those of average dark boulders are 4.4(-2.2)(+14.0) x 10(-5) and 1.3(-1.1)(+9.8) x 10(-3), respectively, at a diameter range of 2 cm to 2 m. Second, the number density of bright boulders inside the artificial crater newly made by the Small Carry-on Impactor (SCI) experiment agrees with the outside number density within a factor of two. Third, many of the bright boulders are embedded in a larger substrate boulder, suggesting that they have experienced mixing and conglomeration with darker fragments on Ryugu's parent body, rather than gently landing on Ryugu during or after its formation by reaccumulation. This observation is consistent with the hypothesis that S-type bright boulders were likely mixed during and/or before a catastrophic disruption. C-type bright boulders embedded in substrate boulders suggests a brecciation process after thermal metamorphism. Furthermore, the embedding of S-type clasts in substrate boulders suggests that brecciation did indeed occur even after a large-scale impact on the parent body. If the brecciation on the Ryugu's parent body occurred over such a long period or over many stages of its evolution, breccias may end up being the dominant constituent materials on Ryugu's parent body. Moreover, the preponderance of breccias may contribute to the globally low thermal inertia of Ryugu.

One of the major challenges in the Hayabusa2 sample-return mission was the second touchdown on the asteroid Ryugu, which was designed to collect subsurface materials near the artificial crater formed by a small carry-on impactor. Due to engineering and scientific requirements, a narrow area with a radius as small as 3.5 m was selected as the target landing site. To achieve pinpoint touchdown at the selected site, an artificial landmark called a target marker (TM) was used for optical navigation. The key to a successful touchdown was precise deployment of the TM in the microgravity environment of the asteroid. This study therefore investigates a viable trajectory for TM deployment, incorporating the uncertainty in the impact and rebound motions of the TM. Following the TM deployment operation, a detailed survey of the landing site around the TM settlement point is performed to assess the terrain conditions. To guarantee the observation quality and spacecraft safety, multi-impulse low-altitude trajectories are introduced in this paper, along with covariance analyses based on the high-fidelity polyhedral gravity model of Ryugu. Subsequently, a pinpoint touchdown trajectory that satisfies various engineering requirements, such as landing accuracy and velocity, is designed, taking advantage of optical TM tracking. The feasibility of the touchdown sequence is further validated by a Monte Carlo dispersion analysis. Consequently, Hayabusa2 successfully touched down within the target site on 11 July 2019. The current research also conducts a post-operation trajectory reconstruction based on the flight data to demonstrate the actual guidance performance in the TM deployment, landing site observations, and pinpoint touchdown. (C) 2021 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Both poles of asteroid Ryugu, the target of space mission Hayabusa2, preserve the least processed material by space weathering. Here, the authors show detection of 700 nm absorption band in the polar spectra of Ryugu, that allows to constrain the hydrothermal history of its spectrally blue parent body.Ryugu is a carbonaceous rubble-pile asteroid visited by the Hayabusa2 spacecraft. Small rubble pile asteroids record the thermal evolution of their much larger parent bodies. However, recent space weathering and/or solar heating create ambiguities between the uppermost layer observable by remote-sensing and the pristine material from the parent body. Hayabusa2 remote-sensing observations find that on the asteroid (162173) Ryugu both north and south pole regions preserve the material least processed by space weathering, which is spectrally blue carbonaceous chondritic material with a 0-3% deep 0.7-mu m band absorption, indicative of Fe-bearing phyllosilicates. Here we report that spectrally blue Ryugu's parent body experienced intensive aqueous alteration and subsequent thermal metamorphism at 570-670 K (300-400 degrees C), suggesting that Ryugu's parent body was heated by radioactive decay of short-lived radionuclides possibly because of its early formation 2-2.5 Ma. The samples being brought to Earth by Hayabusa2 will give us our first insights into this epoch in solar system history.

On 2019 January 8, the Telescopic Optical Navigation Camera (ONC-T) on board the Hayabusa2 spacecraft observed the Cb-type asteroid 162173 Ryugu under near-opposition illumination and viewing conditions from approximately 20 km in distance. Although opposition observations have never been used for mapping purposes of a planetary body, we found three advantages for mapping under these conditions: (1) images are free of topographic shadows, (2) the reflectance is nearly independent of the orientation of the surface, and (3) spurious color artifacts that may appear near shadowed terrain are avoided. We present normal albedo maps, one for each of the seven filters (0.40–0.95 μm), using an empirical photometric correction. Global coverage of Ryugu is 99.4%. The 0.55 μm band average normal albedo is 4.06% ± 0.10%. Various spectral variations are derived from these maps. Spectral features of regions and boulders are quantified by examining the normal albedo-derived spectral slope and UV index (spectral slope from visible to ultraviolet wavelength) value. In terms of space weathering, three spectral characteristics are observed over the majority of Ryugu: (1) reddening, (2) increases in reflectance at ultraviolet wavelengths compared to visible, and (3) darkening. By contrast, the bright boulders (“type 3”) show a different trend, with wide variations in the 0.95 μm albedo and UV index. Finally, principal component analysis (PCA) comparisons with other asteroids strongly suggest that the main components of Ryugu belong to the B-Cb-type populations. The PCA feature of the fresh material on Ryugu is close to the Eulalia family.

The resurfacing process on Ryugu accompanying the artificial impact crater formation by Hayabusa2's Small Carry-on Impactor (SCI) was studied by comparing pre- and post-impact images of this region captured by an optical navigation camera. Three different aspects of the resurfacing process were examined: the crater rim profiles, the motion of boulders and the appearance of new boulders, and the motion vectors of Ryugu's surface around the SCI crater. The averaged crater rim height, h, was derived as follows: h = h(r) exp [-(r/R-rim 1)/lambda(rim)], where R-rim is the SCI crater rim radius of 8.8 m, the fitted parameter, h(r), is 0.475 m, and the lambda(rim) is 0.245. The ejecta blanket thickness of the SCI crater was thinner than that estimated from both the observation of natural craters and the crater formation theory. However, this discrepancy of the ejecta blanket thickness was resolved by taking into account the new boulders appearing in the post-impact images in the volume. The motion of the discovered boulders could be classified by its mechanisms as follows: a dragging motion created by excavation flow during the crater formation, a pushing motion created by falling-back ejecta, a dragging motion created by the slight motion of the Okamoto boulder, and a motion caused by seismic shaking induced by the SCI impact itself. The seismic shaking caused boulders to move farther than 3 cm from the original site in most of the region within 15 m distance from the SCI crater center, where the maximum acceleration of the impact induced seismic waves 7 times larger than the surface gravity of Ryugu based on the laboratory experiments (Matsue et al. [2020] Icarus, 338, 113520), and the evidence of the seismic shaking for boulders with a movement of >3 cm was detected in about 10% of the boulders in the region between 15 m and 30 m from the crater center, which region was inferred to experience acceleration larger than the Ryugu's surface gravity based on previous laboratory experiments (Matsue et al. [2020] Icarus, 338, 113520).

Recent asteroid missions have revealed that many sub-kilometer asteroids are rubble piles. Large parts of their surfaces are covered with boulders larger than tens of centimeters. An evaluation of the abundance and size distribution of boulders provides clues to understand surface processes on boulder-covered asteroids. Here we report a new method that automatically measures the abundance of small boulders (sub-pixel to a few pixels), whose boundaries cannot be recognized with visual inspection, by quantifying the surface radiance variation that occurs during the spinning of the asteroid. After validating our approach with previous boulder counting data, we apply this method to images of the asteroids Ryugu and Itokawa, which were visited by JAXA's Hayabusa and Hayabusa2, and obtain a global distribution of the boulders larger than 0.75-3 m, which corresponds to 1.5-6 pixels. We find that the boulder number density of this size range is smaller (1) on the western bulge than on the eastern hemisphere and (2) on the equatorial ridge than on the higher latitudes, both of which exceed the number density of boulders > 5 m by an order of magnitude. The boulder size distribution at 1.25-20 m shows that the boulders smaller than 1 m are more abundant at the equator than at mid-latitudes, while those larger than 1 m in diameter are more abundant at mid-latitudes than at the equator. This contrast suggests size-dependent migration of boulders in the latitudinal direction. We also find that the typical boulder size (the size reaching the cumulative areal coverage of 50%) is 1.9 m at the equatorial region (10 degrees S-10 degrees N) while it is 2.6 m at mid-latitudes (40 degrees S-50 degrees S, 40 degrees N-50 degrees N). The typical boulder size is also smaller in the western bulge (2.0-2.2 m). We construct global maps of the power-law index of the size frequency distribution of boulders and find minor variations over the entire surface of Ryugu (-2.53 +/- 0.03) for boulders larger than 1.25 m. This small variation suggests homogeneous size sorting processes on Ryugu. Surface roughness does not show a significant correlation with the v-band albedo but shows a high anti-correlation (R = -0.73) with the current geological slope on the eastern hemisphere. Our method is useful enhancement of smooth area detection and boulder distribution characterization that will be applicable to other planetary explorations in the future, including those of Phobos and other asteroids.

Planetesimals—the initial stage of the planetary formation process—are considered to be initially very porous aggregates of dusts1,2, and subsequent thermal and compaction processes reduce their porosity3. The Hayabusa2 spacecraft found that boulders on the surface of asteroid (162173) Ryugu have an average porosity of 30–50% (refs. 4–6), higher than meteorites but lower than cometary nuclei7, which are considered to be remnants of the original planetesimals8. Here, using high-resolution thermal and optical imaging of Ryugu’s surface, we discovered, on the floor of fresh small craters (<20 m in diameter), boulders with reflectance (~0.015) lower than the Ryugu average6 and porosity >70%, which is as high as in cometary bodies. The artificial crater formed by Hayabusa2’s impact experiment9 is similar to these craters in size but does not have such high-porosity boulders. Thus, we argue that the observed high porosity is intrinsic and not created by subsequent impact comminution and/or cracking. We propose that these boulders are the least processed material on Ryugu and represent remnants of porous planetesimals that did not undergo a high degree of heating and compaction3. Our multi-instrumental analysis suggests that fragments of the highly porous boulders are mixed within the surface regolith globally, implying that they might be captured within collected samples by touch-down operations10,11.

Hayabusa2 is the Japanese Asteroid Return Mission and targeted the carbonaceous asteroid Ryugu, conducted by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The goal of this mission was to conduct proximity operations including remote sensing observations, material sampling, and a Small Carry-On Impact experiment, as well as sample analyses. As of September 2020, the spacecraft is on the way back to Earth with samples from Ryugu with no critical issues after the successful departure in November 2019. Here, we propose an extended mission in which the spacecraft will rendezvous with a small asteroid with ~30 m - ~40 m in diameter that is rotating at a spin period of ~10 min after an additional ~10-year cruise phase. We introduce that two scenarios are suitable for the extended mission. In the first scenario, the spacecraft will perform swing-by maneuvers at Venus once and Earth twice to arrive at asteroid 2001 AV43. In the second scenario, it will perform swing-by maneuvers at Earth twice to reach asteroid 1998 KY26. In both scenarios, the mission will continue until the early 2030s. JAXA recently released the decision that the spacecraft will rendezvous with 1998 KY26. This paper focuses on our scientific assessments of the two scenarios but leaves the decision process to go to 1998 KY26 for future reports. Rendezvous operations will be planned to detail the physical properties and surrounding environments of the target, one of the smallest elements of small planetary bodies. By achieving the planned operations, the mission will provide critical hints on the violent histories of collisions and accumulations of small bodies in the solar system. Furthermore, the established scientific knowledge and techniques will advance key technologies for planetary defense.

The thermal infrared imager (TIR) onboard the Hayabusa2 spacecraft performed thermographic observations of the asteroid 162173 Ryugu (1999 JU3) from June 2018 to November 2019. Our previous reports revealed that the surface of Ryugu was globally filled with porous materials and had high surface roughness. These results were derived from making the observed temperature maps of TIR using a projection method onto the shape model of Ryugu as geometric corrections. The pointing directions of TIR were calculated using an interpolation of data from the SPICE kernels (NASA/NAIF) during the periods when the optical navigation camera (ONC) and the light detection and ranging (LIDAR) observations were performed. However, the mapping accuracy of the observed TIR images was degraded when the ONC and LIDAR were not performed with TIR. Also, the orbital and attitudinal fluctuations of Hayabusa2 increased the error of the temperature maps. In this paper, to solve the temperature image mapping problems, we improved the correction method by fitting all of the observed TIR images with the surface coordinate addressed on the high-definition shape model of Ryugu (SFM 800k v20180804). This correction adjusted the pointing direction of TIR by rotating the TIR frame relative to the Hayabusa2 frame using a least squares fit. As a result, the temperature maps spatially spreading areas were converged within high-resolved 0.5. by 0.5. maps. The estimated thermal inertia, for instance, was approximately 300 similar to 350 Jm(-2)s(-0.5)K(-1) at the hot area of the Ejima Saxum. This estimation was succeeded in case that the surface topographic features were larger than the pixel scale of TIR. However, the thermal inertia estimation of smooth terrains, such as the Urashima crater, was difficult because of surface roughness effects, where roughness was probably much smaller than the pixel scale of TIR.

Global multiband images of the C-type asteroid (162173) Ryugu were obtained by the optical navigation camera telescope (ONC-T) onboard Hayabusa2. The 0.7-mu m absorption depth of the surface reflectance spectrum, which indicates the presence of hydrous minerals, was not clearly seen on Ryugu using flat field correction data obtained in the preflight measurement. The flat field correction data were obtained in the preflight calibration test only at room temperatures (24-28 degrees C), whereas most observations around Ryugu were performed at a chargecoupled device (CCD) temperature of approximately - 30 degrees C. To obtain higher accuracy measurements, we used a new flat field correction method using the Ryugu surface reflection data. We confirmed that the flat-field patterns are different in high and low temperature conditions. The 0.7-mu m absorption map generated by the new method shows that the 0.7-mu m absorption near the equator (5 degrees N-5.S) is stronger than that from 30 degrees N to 30 degrees S. We found that the excess of the absorption depth at low latitudes was 0.072%, corresponding to 2.7s. The spectral analysis also shows that the Ryugu surface at low latitudes is bluer than that at high latitudes and bluer materials tend to show stronger 0.7-mu m absorption than redder materials, suggesting that this region has been subjected to less space weathering and less solar heating.

Accurate measurements of the surface brightness and its spectrophotometric properties are essential for obtaining reliable observations of the physical and material properties of planetary bodies. To measure the surface brightness of Ryugu accurately, we calibrated the optical navigation cameras (ONCs) of Hayabusa2 using both standard stars and Ryugu itself during the rendezvous phase including two touchdown operations for sampling. These calibration results showed that the nadirviewing telescopic camera (ONC-T) and nadir-viewing wide-angle camera (ONC-W1) experienced substantial variation in sensitivity. In particular, ONC-W1 showed significant sensitivity degradation (similar to 60%) after the first touchdown operation. We estimated the degradations to be caused by front lens contamination by fine-grain materials lifted from the Ryugu surface due to thruster gas for ascent back maneuver and sampler projectile impact upon touchdown. While ONC-T is located very close to W1 on the spacecraft, its degradation in sensitivity was only similar to 15% over the entire rendezvous phase. If in fact dust is really the main cause for the degradation, this lighter damage likely resulted from dust protection by the long hood attached to ONC-T. However, because large variations in the absolute sensitivity occurred after the touchdown events, which should be due to dust effect, uncertainty for the absolute sensitivity was rather large (3-4%). On the other hand, the change in relative spectral responsivity (i.e., 0.55-mu m-band normalized responsivity) of ONC-T was small (1%). The variation in relative responsivity during the proximity phase has been well calibrated to have only a small uncertainty (< 1%). Furthermore, the degradation (i.e., increase) in the full width at half maximum of the point spread function of ONC-T and W1 was almost negligible, although the blurring effect due to dust scattering was confirmed in W1. These optical degradations due to the touchdown events were carefully monitored as a function of time along with other time-related deteriorations, such as the dark current level and hot pixels. We also conducted a new calibration of the flat-field change as a function of the detector temperature by observing the onboard flat-field lamp and validating with Ryugu's disk images. The results of these calibrations showed that ONC-T and W1 maintained their scientific performance by updating the calibration parameters.

A projectile accelerated by the Hayabusa2 Small Carry-on Impactor successfully produced an artificial impact crater with a final apparent diameter of 14.5 ± 0.8 m on the surface of the near-Earth asteroid 162173 Ryugu on April 5, 2019. At the time of cratering, Deployable Camera 3 took clear time-lapse images of the ejecta curtain, an assemblage of ejected particles forming a curtain-like structure emerging from the crater. Focusing on the optical depth of the ejecta curtain and comparing it with a theoretical model, we infer the size of the ejecta particles. As a result, the typical size of the ejecta particles is estimated to be several centimeters to decimeters, although it slightly depends on the assumed size distribution. Since the ejecta particles are expected to come from a depth down to ∼1 m, our result suggests that the subsurface layer of Ryugu is composed of relatively small particles compared to the uppermost layer on which we observe many meter-sized boulders. Our result also suggests a deficit of particles of less than ∼1 mm in the subsurface layer. These findings will play a key role in revealing the formation and surface evolution process of Ryugu and other small Solar System bodies.

C-type rubble pile asteroid (162173) Ryugu was observed and characterized up close for a year and a half by the instruments on-board the Japanese Aerospace eXploration Agency (JAXA) Hayabusa2 spacecraft. The asteroid exhibits relatively homogeneous spectral characteristics at near-infrared wavelengths (similar to 1.8-3.2 mu m), including a very low reflectance factor, a slight positive ("red") slope towards longer wavelengths, and a narrow absorption feature centered at 2.72 mu m that is attributed to the presence of OH- in phyllosilicate minerals. Numerous craters have been identified at the surface that provide good candidates for identifying and studying younger and/or more recently exposed near-surface material to further assess potential spectral/compositional heterogeneities. We present here the results of a spectral survey of all previously identified and referenced craters (Hirata et al.2020) based on reflectance data acquired by the NIRS3 spectrometer, with an emphasis on the spectral characteristics between different craters as well as with their surrounding terrain. At a global scale, the spectral properties inside and outside of craters are found to be very similar, indicating that subsurface material is either compositionally similar to material at the surface that has a longer exposure age or that material at Ryugu's optical surface is spectrally altered over relatively short timescales by external factors such as space weathering. Although, the imaging data from ONC camera suites show more morphological and color diversity in craters at a smaller scale than the resolution provided by the NIRS3 instrument, which could indicate a wider compositional diversity on Ryugu than that observed in the near-infrared and discussed in this paper. The 2.72 mu m band depth exhibit a slight anticorrelation with the reflectance factor selected at 2 mu m, which could indicate different surface properties (e.g., grain size and/or porosity) or different alteration processes (e.g., space weathering, shock metamorphism and/or solar heating). Four different spectral classes were identified based on their reflectance factor at 2 mu m and 2.72 mu m absorption strength. The most commonly spectral behavior associated with crater floors, is defined by a slightly lower reflectance at 2 mu m and deeper band depth. These spectral characteristics are similar to those of subsurface material excavated by the Hayabusa2 small carry-on impactor (SCI) experiment, suggesting these spectral characteristics may represent materials with a younger surface exposure age. Alternatively, these materials may have experienced significant solar heating and desiccation to form finer grains that subsequently migrated towards and preferentially accumulated in areas of low geopotential, such as craters floors. It is believed that the Hayabusa2 mission successfully collected typical surface material as well as darker material excavated by the SCI experiment, and detailed analyses of those samples upon their return will allow for further testing of these formation and alteration hypotheses.

The asteroid (162173) Ryugu and other rubble-pile asteroids are likely re-accumulated fragments of much larger parent bodies that were disrupted by impacts. However, the collisional and orbital pathways from the original parent bodies to subkilometre rubble-pile asteroids are not yet well understood1–3. Here we use Hayabusa2 observations to show that some of the bright boulders on the dark, carbonaceous (C-type) asteroid Ryugu4 are remnants of an impactor with a different composition as well as an anomalous portion of its parent body. The bright boulders on Ryugu can be classified into two spectral groups: most are featureless and similar to Ryugu’s average spectrum4,5, while others show distinct compositional signatures consistent with ordinary chondrites—a class of meteorites that originate from anhydrous silicate-rich asteroids6. The observed anhydrous silicate-like material is likely the result of collisional mixing between Ryugu’s parent body and one or multiple anhydrous silicate-rich asteroid(s) before and during Ryugu’s formation. In addition, the bright boulders with featureless spectra and less ultraviolet upturn are consistent with thermal metamorphism of carbonaceous meteorites7,8. They might sample different thermal-metamorphosed regions, which the returned sample will allow us to verify. Hence, the bright boulders on Ryugu provide new insights into the collisional evolution and accumulation of subkilometre rubble-pile asteroids.

In this study, we determined the alignment of the laser altimeter aboard Hayabusa2 with respect to the spacecraft using in-flight data. Since the laser altimeter data were used to estimate the trajectory of the Hayabusa2 spacecraft, the pointing direction of the altimeter needed to be accurately determined. The boresight direction of the receiving telescope was estimated by comparing elevations of the laser altimeter data and camera images, and was confirmed by identifying prominent terrains of other datasets. The estimated boresight direction obtained by the laser link experiment in the winter of 2015, during the Earth's gravity assist operation period, differed from the direction estimated in this study, which fell on another part of the candidate direction; this was not selected in a previous study. Assuming that the uncertainty of alignment determination of the laser altimeter boresight was 4.6 pixels in the camera image, the trajectory error of the spacecraft in the cross- and/or along-track directions was determined to be 0.4, 2.1, or 8.6 m for altitudes of 1, 5, or 20 km, respectively.

The near-Earth asteroid 162173 Ryugu, the target of the Hayabusa2 mission, is noted to be a spinning top-shaped rubble-pile. Craters are among the most prominent surface features on Ryugu. Their shapes, particularly their depth-to-diameter ratio (d/D), can provide an important proxy for probing both the internal structure and surface processes of planetary bodies. Here, we report d/D of every impact crater on Ryugu using a shape model derived from stereo-photoclinometry. We found that the average, standard deviation, and observed range of d/D for the entire set of craters are 0.09, 0.02, and 0.03-0.15, respectively. Except for possible pit craters, the maximum d/D of large craters on Ryugu (D > 50 m) is close to 0.13, which is comparable with those of fresh simple craters on rocky asteroids, such as Gaspra and Ida. Conversely, the d/D of small craters (D < 50 m) increases with the crater diameter. This behavior implies that a smaller crater on Ryugu is formed as a shallower crater. As on Itokawa, the surface environment on Ryugu likely inhibits craters becoming deep. This especially affects smaller craters, as their normal small depth decreases in the Ryugu environment and they become still more shallow. As a result, small craters rapidly degrade beyond the point where they can be identified as candidate craters. This is likely responsible for the apparent lack of small craters. The d/D has no reliable relationship with the types of crater classification in Hirata et al. (2020). Examination of latitudinal and longitudinal variation in d/D of craters on Ryugu revealed no statistically significant trends.

The deep-space multi-object orbit determination system (DMOODS) and its application in the asteroid proximity operation of the Hayabusa2 mission are described. DMOODS was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) for the primary purpose of determining the trajectory of deep-space spacecraft for JAXA’s planetary missions. The weighted least-squares batch filter is used for the orbit estimator of DMOODS. The orbit estimator supports more than 10 data types, some of which are used for relative trajectory measurements between multiple space objects including natural satellites and small bodies. This system consists of a set of computer programs running on Linux-based consumer PCs on the ground, which are used for orbit determination and the generation of radiometric tracking data, such as delta differential one-way ranging and doppler tracking data. During the asteroid proximity phase of Hayabusa2, this system played an essential role in operations that had very strict navigation requirements or operations in which few optical data were obtained owing to special constraints on the spacecraft attitude or distance from the asteroid. One example is orbit determination during the solar conjunction phase, in which the navigation accuracy is degraded by the effect of the solar corona. The large range bias caused by the solar corona was accurately estimated with DMOODS by combining light detection and ranging (LIDAR) and ranging measurements in the superior solar conjunction phase of Hayabusa2. For the orbiting operations of target markers and the MINERVA-II2 rover, the simultaneous estimation of six trajectories of four artificial objects and a natural object was made by DMOODS. This type of simultaneous orbit determination of multi-artificial objects in deep-space has never been accomplished before.

Rubble pile asteroids such as (162173) Ryugu have large bulk porosities, which are believed to result from void spaces in between the constituent boulders (macroporosity) as well as void spaces within the boulders themselves (microporosity). In general, both macroporosity and microporosity are estimated based on comparisons between the asteroid bulk density and both the bulk and grain density of meteorite analogs, and relatively large macroporosities are usually obtained. Here we use semiempirical models for the macroporosity of multicomponent mixtures to determine Ryugu's macroporosity based on the observed size-frequency distribution (SFD) of boulders on the surface. We find that Ryugu's macroporosity can be significantly smaller than usually assumed, as the observed SFD allows for an efficient packing of boulders, resulting in a macroporosity of 16% +/- 3%. Therefore, we confirm that Ryugu's high bulk porosity is a direct consequence of a very large boulder microporosity. Furthermore, using estimates of boulder microporosity of around 50% as derived from in situ measurements, the average grain density in boulders is 2,848 +/- 152 kg m(-3), similar to values obtained for CM and the Tagish lake meteorites. Ryugu's bulk porosity corresponding to the above values is 58%. Thus, the macroporosity of rubble pile asteroids may have been systematically overestimated in the past.

© 2021 Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Alteration processes on asteroid and comet surfaces, such as thermal fracturing, (micrometeorite) impacts or volatile outgassing, are complex mechanisms that form diverse surface morphologies and roughness on various scales. These mechanisms and their interaction may differ on the surfaces of different bodies. Asteroid Ryugu and comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, both, have been visited by landers that imaged the surfaces in high spatial resolution.We investigate the surface morphology and roughness of Ryugu and 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko based on high-resolution in situ images of 0.2 and 0.8mm pixel resolution over an approximately 25 and 80 cm wide scene, respectively. To maintain comparability and reproducibility, we introduce a method to extract surface roughness descriptors (fractal dimension, Hurst exponent, joint roughness coefficient, root-mean-square slope, hemispherical crater density, small-scale roughness parameter, and Hapke mean slope angle) from in situ planetary images illuminated by LEDs. We validate our method and choose adequate parameters for an analysis of the roughness of the surfaces. We also derive the roughness descriptors from 3D shape models of Ryugu and orbiter camera images and show that the higher spatially resolved images result in a higher roughness. We find that 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko is up to 6 per cent rougher than Ryugu depending on the descriptor used and attribute this difference to the different intrinsic properties of the materials imaged and the erosive processes altering them. On 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko sublimation appears to be the main cause for roughness, while on Ryugu micrometeoroid bombardment as well as thermal fatigue and solar weathering may play a significant role in shaping the surface.