Hiroko MINESAKI

<p>This paper aims to elucidate the situation of religious minority diaspora under globalization, based on the following characteristics: nation-state, languages, gender, generations, and belonging. This paper is a case study of the Ahmadiyya Muslim community in Japan, based on cultural anthropological fieldwork from May 2012 to the present. Ahmadiyya, founded in 1889, was one of the new religious movements started in British India, originating with the life and teachings of Mi^^-rza^^- Ghula^^-m Ahmad (1835-1908) . It now has tens of millions adherents (called Ahmadis) worldwide, especially in Europe, North America, and West Africa. Today, about 200 Ahmadis live in Japan, most of whom are from Pakistan, and the rest from India, Indonesia, and other countries. In 1947, when Pakistan broke off from India and both countries gained independence from Britain, the Ahmadis moved from India to Pakistan, and built their base camp in what they named Rabwah. Like other Indian Muslims who migrated from India to Pakistan, the Ahmadis chose Pakistan as the nation-state that they wished to live in. The nation-state 'Muslim Pakistan' was created to develop a sense of unity among Muslims based on their Islamic identity. In that context, the definition of Islam was discussed in Pakistan as such: "Who are we as Muslims, and who are others as heathens?" From the 1950's, Maudu^^-di^^- (1903-1979), the leader of Jamat al-Islam Pakistan, looked upon the Ahmadis as an enemy. After the coup of 1977, they were in league with then-President Zia-ul-Haq, who had emphasized Islam to legitimate his governance because of the lack of popularity, and went on a political campaign against them. As a result, the Ahmadis lost their legal rights as Muslims through a constitutional amendment in 1974. Furthermore, on April 26, 1984, then-President Zia-ul-Haq issued Martial Law Ordinance XX, which amended Pakistan's Penal Code sections 298-B and 298-C, forbidding Ahmadis to do missionary work, uphold the practice of Azan, give sermons, and 'indirectly or directly pose as a Muslim.' The persecution of the Ahmadiyya community has thus been completely legalized, even encouraged, by the Pakistani government. Most Ahmadis who live in Japan emigrated after the 1980's. Ahmadis' distinguishing traits are extreme pacifism, high systematization, and adoption of the caliphate. In this paper, the Ahmadis are described as being prepared to negotiate peacefully with others to keep their identity and to create their own place to live, without infringement from any nation-state and with human rights. We show how they strive to express their religious identity and to maintain that identity in host societies, and how they develop the next generation's religious identity in diaspora. Nation-State: There are only isolated instances of Muslims who accept the separation of religion and politics. However, the Ahmadiyya are noticeable different in this matter. Their founder, Mi^^-rza^^- Ghula^^-m Ahmad (1839-1908) , ordered his followers to 'protect the sanctity of both religion and government by becoming righteous souls as well as loyal citizens,' 'love your country,' and avoid violence. Even though the Pakistani government oppressed them, the Ahmadis never disputed with the government. They escaped from Pakistan and went to other countries where they could live in peace. In their host countries, they respect the host government and try to be loyal citizens as per their founder's teachings. Furthermore, they feel that they now belong to the host country because they live there, and because the host country guarantees them freedom of religion as well as human rights. Languages: As is the case with most Pakistanis, the Ahmadis usually know several different languages. Most of Ahmadis are from Punjab, so their native language is Punjabi. While they can speak</p><p>(View PDF for the rest of the abstract.)</p>